空間思維能力是人類智能中重要的一部分。許多研究證實，空間能力發達者，可在腦中完成複雜的發明與創造，並擁有較佳的邏輯與思考力，且學習能力也相對較高。儘管空間思維能力有其重要性，但因空間屬於抽象概念，不易透過傳統論述式的教學或是測驗過程呈現，也不易與生活經驗結合。因此學生往往在學習過程中有較大的挫折，導致學習動機與自我效能低落。數位遊戲式學習模式能提供模擬的情境，透過趣味的互動方式，讓學生在安排的情境中學習空間思維及應用知識，並能反覆練習。然而在遊戲設計中，若學習者在學習過程中遇到困難，系統往往只是提供答案及補充資料，而不是引導學習者自己嘗試解決問題。若無適當的教學策略學生將可能過度依賴解答，而欠缺深度思考。為了解決這個問題，本研究提出結合漸進式提示策略的數位遊戲學習模式，透過三階段的提示方式，引導學習者自行思考空間思維的解決方案；同時，依照解決空間問題的表現，逐漸提供適合其學習需求的引導。為了驗證這個方法的效果，本研究開發了一個數位遊戲，應用在國中七年級之空間數學課程中，以探討這個學習模式對於學生空間思維的學習成就、學習動機、自我效能、數學焦慮、心流經驗、認知負荷的影響；同時，也針對其行為歷程進行分析。研究結果顯示使用結合漸進式提示策略的數位遊戲學習模式，學習者的自我效能、心流經驗顯著優於一般提示策略的數位遊戲學習模式，數學焦慮、認知負荷則顯著低於一般提示策略的數位遊戲學習模式；在學習成就與學習動機方面則顯示數位遊戲學習模式均能為學習者帶來正向的影響；而透過行為序列分析，亦表明結合漸進式提示策略的數位遊戲學習模式，有較深層的思考行為模式。

Spatial thinking skills are an important part of human intelligence. Several studies have shown that people with advanced spatial abilities can make complex inventions and creations via mental activities, have better logic and thinking skills, and have relatively higher learning abilities. Despite the importance of spatial thinking skills, the concept of spatial thinking is abstract, so it is not easy to learn through traditional teaching. As a result, students tend to feel frustrated when learning spatial thinking. The digital game learning model provides a simulated context in which students can learn Spatial thinking skills and apply knowledge in a fun and interactive way, and practice it repeatedly. However, in the game design, when the learners encounter difficulties in the learning process, the system usually provides answers and supplementary information instead of guiding the learners to think about spatial thinking solutions by themselves. Without appropriate teaching strategies, students may rely too much on the answers and lack deep thinking. To cope with this problem, this study proposes a digital game learning model that combines a progressive prompting strategy to guide the learners to think about spatial thinking solutions on their own through a three-stage prompting approach. To validate the effectiveness of this approach, a game was developed and applied to a 7th-grade spatial mathematics curriculum to investigate the effects of this learning model on students' spatial thinking achievement, motivation, self-efficacy, mathematical anxiety, and mind-flow experiences; and to analyze its behavioral history. The results of the study showed that the progressive prompting-based digital gaming approach had significantly better self-efficacy and flow experience and significantly lower mathematical anxiety and cognitive load than the general prompting-based digital game learning mode. It is also showed that digital game learning had positive effects on learning achievement and motivation; the behavioral sequence analysis also showed that the progressive prompting-based digital gaming approach had a deeper thinking behavior pattern.

All, A., Plovie, B., Castellar, E. P. N., & Van Looy, J. (2017). Pre-test influences on the effectiveness of digital-game based learning: A case study of a fire safety game. Computers & Education, 114, 24-37.
Badami, R., VaezMousavi, M., Wulf, G., & Namazizadeh, M. (2011). Feedback after good versus poor trials affects intrinsic motivation. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 82(2), 360-364.
Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J. M. (1997). Observing interaction: An introduction to sequential analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.
Barzilai, S., & Blau, I. (2014). Scaffolding game-based learning: Impact on learning achievements, perceived learning, and game experiences. Computers & Education, 70, 65-79.
Ben-Chaim, D., Lappan, G., & Houang, R. T. (1988). The effect of instruction on spatial visualization skills of middle school boys and girls. American Educational Research Journal, 25(1), 51-71.
Benzer, A. I., & Yildiz, B. (2019). The Effect of Computer-Aided 3d Modeling Activities on Pre-Service Teachers’ Spatial Abilities and Attitudes Towards 3d Modeling. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 18(3), 335-348. https://doi.org/10.33225/jbse/19.18.335
Buckley, J. (2020). The need to consider the predictive capacity of intelligence and its malleability within design and technology education research. International Journal of Technology and Design Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-020-09588-9
Buckley, J., Seery, N., & Canty, D. (2018). A heuristic framework of spatial ability: A review and synthesis of spatial factor literature to support its translation into STEM education. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 947-972.
Campione, J. C., & Brown, A. L. (1987). Linking dynamic assessment with school achievement. In C. S. Lidz (Ed.), Dynamic assessment: An interactional approach to evaluating learning potential (pp. 82–109). New York: Guilford Press.
Chang, C. Y., Kao, C. H., Hwang, G. J., & Lin, F. H. (2020). From experiencing to critical thinking: a contextual game-based learning approach to improving nursing students' performance in Electrocardiogram training. Etr&D-Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(3), 1225-1245. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09723-x
Charsky, D., & Mims, C. (2008). Integrating commercial off-the-shelf video games into school curriculums. TechTrends, 52(5), 38-44.
Chee, Y. S., Mehrotra, S., & Ong, J. C. (2015). Professional development for scaling pedagogical innovation in the context of game-based learning: Teacher identity as cornerstone in “shifting” practice. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 43(5), 423-437.
Chen, C. Y., Chang, S. C., Hwang, G. J., & Zou, D. (2021). Facilitating EFL learners’ active behaviors in speaking: a progressive question prompt-based peer-tutoring approach with VR contexts. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1878232
Chen, C. H., Huang, K., & Liu, J. H. (2020). Inquiry-Enhanced Digital Game-Based Learning: Effects on Secondary Students’ Conceptual Understanding in Science, Game Performance, and Behavioral Patterns. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29(4), 319-330.
Chen, N. S., & Hwang, G. J. (2014). Transforming the classrooms: innovative digital game-based learning designs and applications. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(2), 125-128.
Cherney, I. D., Bersted, K., & Smetter, J. (2014). Training spatial skills in men and women. Perceptual and Motor skills, 119(1), 82-99.
Chu, H. C., Hwang, G. J., & Tsai, C. C. (2010). A knowledge engineering approach to developing mindtools for context-aware ubiquitous learning. Computers & Education, 54(1), 289-297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2009.08.023
Città, G., Gentile, M., Allegra, M., Arrigo, M., Conti, D., Ottaviano, S., Reale F. & Sciortino, M. (2019). The effects of mental rotation on computational thinking. Computers & Education, 141, 103613.
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Beyond boredom and anxiety. Jossey-Bass.
Denham, A. (2015). Supporting conceptual understanding of the associative and distributive properties through digital gameplay. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 31(6), 706-721.
Dorji, U., Panjaburee, P., & Srisawasdi, N. (2015). A learning cycle approach to developing educational computer game for improving students' learning and awareness in electric energy consumption and conservation. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(1), 91-105.
Dreger, R. M., & Aiken Jr, L. R. (1957). The identification of number anxiety in a college population. Journal of Educational Psychology, 48(6), 344.
Ganley, C. M., Vasilyeva, M., & Dulaney, A. (2014). Spatial ability mediates the gender difference in middle school students' science performance. Child Development. 85(4), 1419-1432. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12230
Gardner, H. E. (1985). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Book.
Garneli, V., Giannakos, M., & Chorianopoulos, K. (2017). Serious games as a malleable learning medium: The effects of narrative, gameplay, and making on students’ performance and attitudes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 48(3), 842-859.
Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model. Simulation & Gaming, 33(4), 441-467.
Gilligan, K. A., Flouri, E., & Farran, E. K. (2017). The contribution of spatial ability to mathematics achievement in middle childhood. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 163, 107-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2017.04.016
González‐Calero, J. A., Cózar, R., Villena, R., & Merino, J. M. (2019). The development of mental rotation abilities through robotics‐based instruction: An experience mediated by gender. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(6), 3198-3213.
Gresalfi, M. S., Rittle-Johnson, B., Loehr, A., & Nichols, I. (2018). Design matters: Explorations of content and design in fraction games. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(3), 579-596.
Hou, H. T., & Li, M. C. (2014). Evaluating multiple aspects of a digital educational problem-solving-based adventure game. Computers in Human behavior, 30, 29-38.
Hsu, C. C., & Wang, T. I. (2018). Applying game mechanics and student-generated questions to an online puzzle-based game learning system to promote algorithmic thinking skills. Computers & Education, 121, 73-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.002
Hsu, Y., Liou, B. Y., Ho, C. W., & Huang, Y. H. (2017). The influence of thinking styles and self-adjustment strategies applied to a digital table game. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 11(3), 242-255.
Huang, Y. M., Huang, S. H., & Wu, T. T. (2014). Embedding diagnostic mechanisms in a digital game for learning mathematics. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(2), 187-207.
Hung, C. M., Huang, I., & Hwang, G. J. (2014). Effects of digital game-based learning on students’ self-efficacy, motivation, anxiety, and achievements in learning mathematics. Journal of Computers in Education, 1(2-3), 151-166.
Hwang, G. J., & Chang, C. Y. (2020). Facilitating decision-making performances in nursing treatments: a contextual digital game-based flipped learning approach. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-16.
Hwang, G. J., Huang, H., Wang, R. X., & Zhu, L. L. (2021). Effects of a concept mapping‐based problem‐posing approach on students’ learning achievements and critical thinking tendency: An application in Classical Chinese learning contexts. British Journal of Educational Technology, 52(1), 374-493.
Hwang, G. J., Lee, H. Y., & Chen, C. H. (2019). Lessons learned from integrating concept mapping and gaming approaches into learning scenarios using mobile devices: analysis of an activity for a geology course. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 13(3), 286-308.
Hwang, G. J., & Wang, S. Y. (2016). Single loop or double loop learning: English vocabulary learning performance and behavior of students in situated computer games with different guiding strategies. Computers & Education, 102, 188-201.
Hwang, G. J., Chiu, L. Y., & Chen, C. H. (2015). A contextual game-based learning approach to improving students' inquiry-based learning performance in social studies courses. Computers & Education, 81, 13-25.
Hwang, G. J., Yang, L. H., & Wang, S. Y. (2013). A concept map-embedded educational computer game for improving students' learning performance in natural science courses. Computers & Education, 69, 121-130.
Hwang, G. J., & Wu, P. H. (2012). Advancements and trends in digital game‐based learning research: a review of publications in selected journals from 2001 to 2010. British Journal of Educational Technology, 43(1), E6-E10.
Jambulingam, M. (2013). Behavioural intention to adopt mobile technology among tertiary students. World Applied Sciences Journal, 22(9), 1262-1271.
Kalloo, V., & Mohan, P. (2015). A technique for mapping mathematics content to game design. International Journal of Serious Games, 2(4), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v2i4.95
Kiili, K., & Ketamo, H. (2017). Evaluating cognitive and affective outcomes of a digital game-based math test. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 11(2), 255-263.
Kyllonen, P. C., Lohman, D. F., & Snow, R. E. (1984). Effects of aptitudes, strategy training, and task facets on spatial task performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(1), 130–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.76.1.130
Lee, J., & Bednarz, R. (2012). Components of spatial thinking: Evidence from a spatial thinking ability test. Journal of Geography, 111(1), 15-26.
Liao, C. C., Chang, W. C., & Chan, T. W. (2018). The effects of participation, performance, and interest in a game‐based writing environment. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 34(3), 211-222.
Liao, C. W., Chen, C. H., & Shih, S. J. (2019). The interactivity of video and collaboration for learning achievement, intrinsic motivation, cognitive load, and behavior patterns in a digital game-based learning environment. Computers & Education, 133, 43-55.
Lin, C. H., & Chen, C. M. (2016). Developing spatial visualization and mental rotation with a digital puzzle game at primary school level. Computers in Human Behavior, 57, 23-30.
Lin, C. H., Chen, C. M., & Lou, Y. C. (2014). Developing spatial orientation and spatial memory with a treasure hunting game. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 17(3), 79-92.
Lin, C. J., Hwang, G. J., Fu, Q. K., & Cao, Y. H. (2020). Facilitating EFL students’ English grammar learning performance and behaviors: A contextual gaming approach. Computers & Education, 152, 103876.
Lin, H. (2016). Influence of design training and spatial solution strategies on spatial ability performance. International Journal of Technology and Design Education, 26(1), 123-131.
Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56(6), 1479–1498. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130467
Mayer, R. E., & Moreno, R. (2003). Nine ways to reduce cognitive load in multimedia learning. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 43–52. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3801_6
McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.86.5.889
McLaren, B. M., Adams, D. M., Mayer, R. E., & Forlizzi, J. (2017). A computer-based game that promotes mathematics learning more than a conventional approach. International Journal of Game-Based Learning (IJGBL), 7(1), 36-56.
Newman, S. D., Hansen, M. T., & Gutierrez, A. (2016). An fMRI study of the impact of block building and board games on spatial ability. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1278.
Ogunkola, B., & Knight, C. (2019). Technical drawing course, video games, gender, and type of school on spatial ability. The Journal of Educational Research, 112(5), 575-589.
Paas, F. G. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem-solving skill in statistics: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 429.
Papastergiou, M. (2009). Digital game-based learning in high school computer science education: Impact on educational effectiveness and student motivation. Computers & Education, 52(1), 1-12.
Pea, R. D. (2004). The social and technological dimensions of scaffolding and related theoretical concepts for learning, education, and human activity. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 13(3), 423-451.
Pearce, J. M., Ainley, M., & Howard, S. (2005). The ebb and flow of online learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(5), 745-771.
Piaget, J. (1971). The theory of stages in cognitive development. In D. R. Green, M. P. Ford, & G. B. Flamer (Eds.),Measurement and Piaget (pp. 1–111). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A.F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W.J. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ). MI: National Center for Research to Improve Postsecondary Teaching and Learning. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338122)
Pittalis, M., & Christou, C. (2013). Coding and decoding representations of 3D shapes. The Journal of Mathematical Behavior, 32(3), 673-689.
Prensky, M. (2003). Digital game-based learning. Computers in Entertainment, 1(1), 21-21.
Richardson, F. C., & Suinn, R. M. (1972). The mathematics anxiety rating scale: psychometric data. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 19(6), 551-554. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0033456
Sanchez, C. A., & Wiley, J. (2014). The role of dynamic spatial ability in geoscience text comprehension. Learning and Instruction, 31, 33-45.
Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701–703. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.171.3972.701
Sorby, S., Veurink, N., & Streiner, S. (2018). Does spatial skills instruction improve STEM outcomes? The answer is ‘yes’. Learning and Individual Differences, 67, 209-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2018.09.001
Spearman, C. (1961). " General Intelligence" objectively determined and measured. The American Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 201–293. https://doi.org/10.2307/1412107
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285.
Sun, C. T., Wang, D. Y., & Chan, H. L. (2011). How digital scaffolds in games direct problem-solving behaviors. Computers & Education, 57(3), 2118-2125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.05.022
Sung, H. Y., Hwang, G. J., Lin, C. J., & Hong, T. W. (2017). Experiencing the analects of confucius: an experiential game-based learning approach to promoting students' motivation and conception of learning. Computers & Education, 110, 143-153.
Sung, H. Y., Hwang, G. J., Liu, S. Y., & Chiu, I. H. (2014). A prompt-based annotation approach to conducting mobile learning activities for architecture design courses. Computers & Education, 76, 80-90.
Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. University of Chicago Press: Chicago, IL, USA.
Touw, K. W. J., Vogelaar, B., Bakker, M., & Resing, W. C. M. (2019). Using electronic technology in the dynamic testing of young primary school children: Predicting school achievement. Educational Technology Research and Development, 67(2), 443-465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09655-6
Uttal, D. H., & Cohen, C. A. (2012). Spatial thinking and STEM education: When, why and how. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 57, 147–181.
Van Nuland, S. E., & Rogers, K. A. (2017). The skeletons in our closet: E‐learning tools and what happens when one side does not fit all. Anatomical Sciences Education, 10(6), 570-588.
Verdine, B. N., Golinkoff, R. M., Hirsh-Pasek, K., & Newcombe, N. S. (2017). I. Spatial skills, their development, and their links to mathematics. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 82(1), 7-126. https://doi.org/10.1111/mono.12280
Vygotsky, L. (1978). Interaction between learning and development. Readings on the development of children, 23(3), 34-41.
Wai, J., Lubinski, D., & Benbow, C. P. (2009). Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(4), 817.
Wang, L. C., & Chen, M. P. (2010). The effects of game strategy and preference‐matching on flow experience and programming performance in game‐based learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 47(1), 39-52.
Wang, S. Y., Chang, S. C., Hwang, G. J., & Chen, P. Y. (2018). A microworld-based role-playing game development approach to engaging students in interactive, enjoyable, and effective mathematics learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 26(3), 411-423.
Wood, D., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 17(2), 89-100.
Xun, G., & Land, S. M. (2004). A conceptual framework for scaffolding III-structured problem-solving processes using question prompts and peer interactions. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(2), 5-22.
Yang, K. H., & Lu, B. C. (2021). Towards the successful game-based learning: Detection and feedback to misconceptions is the key. Computers & Education, 160, 104033.
Yang, K. H., Chu, H. C., & Chiang, L. Y. (2018). Effects of a progressive prompting-based educational game on second graders’ mathematics learning performance and behavioral patterns. Educational Technology & Society, 21(2), 322–334.
Yukselturk, E., Altıok, S., & Başer, Z. (2018). Using game-based learning with kinect technology in foreign language education course. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 159-173.
Yurt, E., & Tünkler, V. (2016). A study on the spatial abilities of prospective social studies teachers: A mixed method research. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 16(3), 965-986. https://doi.org/10.12738/estp.2016.3.0324
Zander, S., Montag, M., Wetzel, S., & Bertel, S. (2020). A gender issue? - How touch-based interactions with dynamic spatial objects support performance and motivation of secondary school students. Computers & Education, 143, 103677.