在工業類型的課程中，虛擬實境不僅可以讓學習者遠離危險的學習環境，同時還可學習操作器具，亦可模擬較為稀有的器材達到節省成本的做用。另一方面，在數位化學習環境，包括虛擬實境的活動中，如何確認學生在每一個學習階段是否能夠正確地應用所學的知識來解決問題，並提供即時的回饋，是一個重要的議題。為了解決這個問題，在本研究中，提出基於雙層次測驗的虛擬實境學習模式，在學習者體驗及決策的過程中，判斷每個階段的學習狀態，並提供回饋及引導。為了驗證所提出的學習模式的成效，本研究以高級職業中學汽車科底盤原理課程進行學習活動，探討對於學生在學習成就、自我效能、盤原理課程問題解決傾向與批判思考傾向以及內在動機的影響。實驗結果表示，基於雙層次測驗的虛擬實境學習模式，相較於一般的虛擬實境學習模式，更能夠提升學生的學習成就。另一方面，這兩種學習模式對於學生在自我效能、問題解決傾向與批判思考傾向及內在動機方面的表現則沒有顯著的差別。

In industrial-type courses, virtual reality not only allows learners to stay away from dangerous learning environments, but also to learn to operate equipment and to simulate rarer equipment for cost-saving purposes. On the other hand, in digital learning environments, including virtual reality activities, it is an important issue to verify that students can correctly apply what they have learned at each learning stage to solve problems and provide immediate feedback. To address this issue, in this study, a Two-Tier Test-based Virtual Reality (TTT-VR) is proposed to determine the learning status of each stage in the process of learner experience and decision making, and to provide feedback and guidance. In order to validate the effectiveness of the proposed learning model, a learning activity was conducted in an advanced vocational high school automotive undergraduate course to investigate the effects on students' academic achievement, self efficacy, problem-solving and critical thinking tendencies, and intrinsic motivation. The experimental results indicated the Two-Tier Test-based Virtual Reality learning model was more effective in enhancing students' learning achievement than the general virtual reality learning model. On the other hand, there was no significant difference in students' performance in terms of self-efficacy, problem-solving and critical thinking tendencies, and intrinsic motivation between the two learning modes.

Akçayır, M., & Akçayır, G. (2017). Advantages and challenges associated with augmented reality for education: A systematic review of the literature. Educational Research Review, 20, 1-11.
Allison, J. (2008). History educators and the challenge of immersive pasts: a critical review of virtual reality ‘tools’ and history pedagogy. Learning, Media and Technology, 33(4), 343-352.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company.
Bayrak, B. K. (2013). Using Two-Tier Test to Identify Primary Students' Conceptual Understanding and Alternative Conceptions in Acid Base. Online Submission, 3(2), 19-26.
Bolkas, D., Chiampi, J., Fioti, J., & Gaffney, D. (2021). Surveying reality (SurReal): Software to simulate surveying in virtual reality. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(5), 296.
Chai, C. S., Deng, F., Tsai, P. S., Koh, J. H. L., & Tsai, C. C. (2015). Assessing multidimensional students’ perceptions of twenty-first-century learning practices. Asia Pacific Education Review, 16(3), 389-398.
Chang, S. C., Hsu, T. C., Kuo, W. C., & Jong, M. S. Y. (2020). Effects of applying a VR‐based two‐tier test strategy to promote elementary students’ learning performance in a Geology class. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(1), 148-165.
Chen, H. L., & Liao, Y. C. (2022). Effects of panoramic image virtual reality on the workplace english learning performance of vocational high school students. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(8), 1601-1622.
Chen, Y. C. (2022). Effects of technology-enhanced language learning on reducing EFL learners’ public speaking anxiety. Computer Assisted Language Learning.
Chen, Y. T., Li, M., Huang, C. Q., Han, Z. M., Hwang, G. J., & Yang, G. (2022). Promoting deep writing with immersive technologies: An SVVR‐supported Chinese composition writing approach for primary schools. British Journal of Educational Technology.
Chu, H. C., & Chang, S. C. (2014). Developing an educational computer game for migratory bird identification based on a two-tier test approach. Educational Technology Research and Development, 62(2), 147-161.
Chu, H. C., Hwang, G. J., Tsai, C. C., & Tseng, J. C. (2010). A two-tier test approach to developing location-aware mobile learning systems for natural science courses. Computers & Education, 55(4), 1618-1627.
Chudari, I. N. M., Mashudi, E. A., & Fatihaturosyidah, F. (2020). Achieving ideal career: improving student’s career self efficacy through career counseling sessions based on HB Gelatt's decision theory. Journal of Professionals in Guidance and Counseling, 1(2), 71-84.
Cuperus, A. A., Keizer, A., Evers, A. W., van den Houten, M. M., Teijink, J. A., & van der Ham, I. J. (2018). Manipulating spatial distance in virtual reality: Effects on treadmill walking performance in patients with intermittent claudication. Computers in Human Behavior, 79, 211-216.
Dean, S., Halpern, J., McAllister, M., & Lazenby, M. (2020). Nursing education, virtual reality and empathy?. Nursing open, 7(6), 2056-2059.
di Lanzo, J. A., Valentine, A., Sohel, F., Yapp, A. Y., Muparadzi, K. C., & Abdelmalek, M. (2020). A review of the uses of virtual reality in engineering education. Computer Applications in Engineering Education, 28(3), 748-763.
Elder, L., & Paul, R. (1994). Critical thinking: Why we musttransform our teaching. Journal of Developmental Education, 18(1), 34–35.
Garzón, J., Pavón, J., & Baldiris, S. (2019). Systematic review and meta-analysis of augmented reality in educational settings. Virtual Reality, 23(4), 447-459.
Geng, J., Jong, M. S. Y., Luk, E., & Jiang, Y. (2018, July). Comparative study on the pedagogical use of interactive spherical video-based virtual reality: The EduVenture-VR experience. In 2018 international symposium on educational technology (ISET) (pp. 261-263). IEEE.
Han, I. (2020). Immersive virtual field trips in education: A mixed‐methods study on elementary students' presence and perceived learning. British Journal of Educational Technology, 51(2), 420-435.
Haslam, F., & Treagust, D. F. (1987). Diagnosing secondary students' misconceptions of photosynthesis and respiration in plants using a two-tier multiple choice instrument. Journal of biological education, 21(3), 203-211.
Huang, Y. P., Zheng, X. L., Chiu, C. K., Lei, J., Yang, G., Kim, H., & Wang, F. (2021). Towards Figurative Expression Enhancement: Effects of the SVVR-Supported Worked Example Approach on the Descriptive Writing of Highly Engaged Students. Sustainability, 13(21), 12260.
Hwang, G. J., Chang, C. C., & Chien, S. Y. (2022). A motivational model‐based virtual reality approach to prompting learners' sense of presence, learning achievements, and higher‐order thinking in professional safety training. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(5), 1343-1360.
Hwang, G. J., Chang, S. C., Chen, P. Y., & Chen, X. Y. (2018). Effects of integrating an active learning-promoting mechanism into location-based real-world learning environments on students’ learning performances and behaviors. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(2), 451-474.
Hwang, G. J., Chen, H. C., Hsu, C. Y., & Hwang, G. H. (2023). Effects of a graphic organizer-based two-tier test approach on students’ learning achievement and behaviors in spherical video-based virtual learning contexts. Computers & Education, 198, 104757.
Hwang, G. J., Chiu, M. C., Hsia, L. H., & Chu, H. C. (2023). Promoting art appreciation performances and behaviors in effective and joyful contexts: A two-tier test-based digital gaming approach. Computers & Education, 194, 104706.
Hwang, G. J., Lai, C. L., Liang, J. C., Chu, H. C., & Tsai, C. C. (2018). A long-term experiment to investigate the relationships between high school students’ perceptions of mobile learning and peer interaction and higher-order thinking tendencies. Educational Technology Research and Development, 66(1), 75–93.
Hwang, G. J., Yang, T. C., Tsai, C. C., & Yang, Stephen J. H. (2009). A context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for conducting complex science experiments. Computers & Education, 53(2), 402-413.
Jensen, L., & Konradsen, F. (2018). A review of the use of virtual reality head-mounted displays in education and training. Education and Information Technologies, 23(4), 1515-1529.
Jing, Y., Mingfang, Z., & Yafang, C. (2022). Feasibility Analysis of the Application of Virtual Reality Technology in College English Culture Teaching. Journal of Information & Knowledge Management, 21(SUPP02), 2240020.
Jong, M. S. Y. (2022). Flipped classroom: motivational affordances of spherical video-based immersive virtual reality in support of pre-lecture individual learning in pre-service teacher education. Journal of Computing in Higher Education.
Kaplan, R. M., & Saccuzzo, D. P. (2001). Psychological testing: Principles, applications, and issues. Cengage Learning.
Karabulut‐Ilgu, A., Jaramillo Cherrez, N., & Jahren, C. T. (2018). A systematic review of research on the flipped learning method in engineering education. British Journal of Educational Technology, 49(3), 398-411.
Kyburz‐Graber, R. (1999). Environmental education as critical education: How teachers and students handle the challenge. Cambridge Journal of Education, 29(3), 415-432.
Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A.F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W.J. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ).
Lai, C. L., & Hwang, G. J. (2014). Effects of mobile learning time on students’ conception of collaboration, communication, complex problem-solving, meta-cognitive awareness and creativity. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 8(3), 276-291.
Laseinde, O. T., Adejuyigbe, S. B., Mpofu, K., & Campbell, H. M. (2015, December). Educating tomorrows engineers: Reinforcing engineering concepts through Virtual Reality (VR) teaching aid. In 2015 IEEE International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Engineering Management (IEEM) (pp. 1485-1489). IEEE.
Lau, K. W., & Lee, P. Y. (2015). The use of virtual reality for creating unusual environmental stimulation to motivate students to explore creative ideas. Interactive Learning Environments, 23(1), 3-18.
Lee, E. A. L., & Wong, K. W. (2014). Learning with desktop virtual reality: Low spatial ability learners are more positively affected. Computers & Education, 79, 49-58.
Li, F. Y., Hwang, G. J., Chen, P. Y., & Lin, Y. J. (2021). Effects of a concept mapping-based two-tier test strategy on students’ digital game-based learning performances and behavioral patterns. Computers & Education, 173, 104293.
Li, M., Chen, Y., Zhang, L., Wu, X., & Huang, C. (2022). Investigating Learners’ Engagement and Chinese Writing Learning Outcomes with Different Designs of SVVR-Based Activities. Sustainability, 14(8), 4767.
Lin, H. C., Hwang, G. J., & Hsu, Y. D. (2019). Effects of ASQ-based flipped learning on nurse practitioner learners' nursing skills, learning achievement and learning perceptions. Computers & Education, 139, 207-221.
Lin, Y. J., & Wang, H. C. (2021). Using virtual reality to facilitate learners’ creative self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in an EFL classroom. Education and Information Technologies, 26(4), 4487-4505.
Martín-Gutiérrez, J., Mora, C. E., Añorbe-Díaz, B., & González-Marrero, A. (2017). Virtual technologies trends in education. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 13(2), 469-486.
Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, M. C. (1996). Problem-solving transfer. In D. C. Berliner, & R. C. Calfee (Eds.), Handbook of educational psychology (pp. 47–62). New York, NY: Macmillan Library Reference.
McAuley, E., Duncan, T., & Tammen, V. V. (1989). Psychometric properties of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory in a competitive sport setting: A confirmatory factor analysis. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 60(1), 48–58.
Meyer, O. A., Omdahl, M. K., & Makransky, G. (2019). Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment. Computers & Education, 140, 103603.
Oudeyer, P. Y., & Kaplan, F. (2009). What is intrinsic motivation? A typology of computational approaches. Frontiers in neurorobotics, 6.
Pack, A., & Barrett, A. (2021). A Review of Virtual Reality and English for Academic Purposes: Understanding Where to Start. International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching, 11(1), 72-80.
Pintrich, P.R., Smith, D.A.F., Garcia, T., & McKeachie, W.J. (1991). A manual for the use of the motivated strategies for learning questionnaire (MSLQ).
Rupp, M. A., Odette, K. L., Kozachuk, J., Michaelis, J. R., Smither, J. A., & McConnell, D. S. (2019). Investigating learning outcomes and subjective experiences in 360-degree videos. Computers & Education, 128, 256-268.
Sattar, M., Palaniappan, S., Lokman, A., Shah, N., Khalid, U., & Hasan, R. (2020). Motivating medical students using virtual reality based education. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 15(2), 160-174.
Sholichin, F., Suaib, N. M., Irawati, D. A., Solikin, M., Yudantoko, A., Yudianto, A., ... & Sulaiman, H. A. (2020, November). Virtual reality learning environments for vocational education: a comparative study with conventional instructional media on two-stroke engine. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 979(1), 012015.
Sung, H. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2018). Facilitating effective digital game-based learning behaviors and learning performances of students based on a collaborative knowledge construction strategy. Interactive Learning Environments, 26(1), 118–134.
Suryanda, A., Azrai, E. P., Nuramadhan, M., & Ichsan, I. Z. (2020). Analogy and critical thinking skills: Implementation learning strategy in biodiversity and environment topic. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(4A), 45-50.
Talmir, P. (1991). Multiple Choice Items: How to Gain the Most out of Them. Biochemical Education, 19(4), 188-91.
Theelen, H., van den Beemt, A., & den Brok, P. (2020). Developing preservice teachers’ interpersonal knowledge with 360-degree videos in teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, 89, 102992.
Treagust, D. F. (1988). Development and use of diagnostic tests to evaluate students misconceptions in science. International Journal of Science Education, 10(2), 159-169.
Trotman, A., & Handley, C. (2008). Programming contest strategy. Computers & Education, 50(3), 821-837.
Umam, A. (2020). Analysis of critical thinking skill profile on the concept of simple harmonic motion using two tier instrument test. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1567(3), 032085.
Veljko, A., Vlade, U., & Dionysios, P., (2020). Applied computer graphics: wrench virtual reality simulator. The 6th International conference Knowledge management and informatics.
Walshe, N., & Driver, P. (2019). Developing reflective trainee teacher practice with 360-degree video. Teaching and Teacher Education, 78, 97-105.
Wang, T., & Towey, D. (2013, August). A Mobile Virtual Environment game approach for improving student learning performance in integrated science classes in Hong Kong International Schools. In Proceedings of 2013 IEEE International Conference on Teaching, Assessment and Learning for Engineering (TALE) (pp. 386-388). IEEE.
Wang, Y., Luo, X., Liu, C. C., Tu, Y. F., & Wang, N. (2022). An Integrated Automatic Writing Evaluation and SVVR Approach to Improve Students’ EFL Writing Performance. Sustainability, 14(18), 11586.
Wolff, M., Wagner, M. J., Poznanski, S., Schiller, J., & Santen, S. (2015). Not another boring lecture: engaging learners with active learning techniques. The Journal of emergency medicine, 48(1), 85-93.
Xie, Y., Ryder, L., & Chen, Y. (2019). Using interactive virtual reality tools in an advanced Chinese language class: A case study. TechTrends, 63(3), 251-259.
Xu, T. (2022). Immersion Teaching Method of Business English Based on Virtual Reality Technology. Journal of Information & Knowledge Management, 21(Supp02), 2240015.
Yang, J. C., Chen, C. H., & Jeng, M. C. (2010). Integrating video-capture virtual reality technology into a physically interactive learning environment for English learning. Computers & Education, 55(3), 1346-1356.
Yang, K. H., & Lu, B. C. (2021). Towards the successful game-based learning: Detection and feedback to misconceptions is the key. Computers & Education, 160, 104033.
Yang, Q. F., Lin, H., Hwang, G. J., Su, P. Y., & Zhao, J. H. (2022). An exploration-based SVVR approach to promote students’ chemistry learning effectiveness. Interactive Learning Environments. 1-25.
Yang, T. C., Chen, S. Y., & Hwang, G. J. (2015). The influences of a two-tier test strategy on student learning: A lag sequential analysis approach. Computers & education, 82, 366-377.
Yang, T. C., Fu, H. T., Hwang, G. J., & Yang, S. J. (2017). Development of an interactive mathematics learning system based on a two-tier test diagnostic and guiding strategy. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 33(1), 62-80.
Yang, T. C., Hwang, G. J., Yang, S. J., & Hwang, G. H. (2015). A two-tier test-based approach to improving students' computer-programming skills in a web-based learning environment. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 18(1), 198-210.
Yin, J., Goh, T. T., Yang, B., & Xiaobin, Y. (2021). Conversation technology with micro-learning: The impact of chatbot-based learning on students’ learning motivation and performance. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 59(1), 154-177.
York, J., Shibata, K., Tokutake, H., & Nakayama, H. (2021). Effect of SCMC on foreign language anxiety and learning experience: A comparison of voice, video, and VR-based oral interaction. ReCALL, 33(1), 49-70.
Zhao, Z. (2021). Virtual Reality Language Lab of Second Language Learning Based on J Bruner’s Discovery Learning and Self-Efficacy Theory—Literature Review and Solution Improvement. Journal of Innovation and Social Science Research, 2591, 6890.