本研究探討影響國小學生電腦化心像旋轉能力測量表現之因素，並分析各年級分組情形下的表現是否有所不同。
研究對象為台北市某國小4、5、6年級學生，男生430人、女生384人，共814位學生。本研究依標準化測驗編製程序自編電腦化心像旋轉測驗，隨機分派受試者接受不同測驗時間限制(6分鐘、無時限)的實驗處理，受試者重複測量兩種題型(鏡像、不同結構題型)，以三因子(時限、類型、性別)混合實驗設計觀察測驗表現。
研究結果顯示，無論在全體學生或是各年級(4、5、6)中，皆無顯著的三因子交互作用和二因子交互作用存在，但三因子都各自呈現顯著的主要效果：無時限的表現皆高於有時限的表現，在不同結構題型的表現皆較鏡像題型的表現佳，男生的表現總是傾向高於女童的測驗表現。
上述主要效果的結果和主要的文獻發現一樣，而進一步分析後發現過去研究較少提出之處，即不同測驗時限下、各年級在題型的表現皆存在顯著差異，並且不同測驗時限對於5年級孩童的測驗表現產生較大的影響，可能是5年級孩童的空間能力正處於較大變動的階段。
主要研究結論為，電腦化心像旋轉測驗之表現存在題型表現差異、性別差異及年級差異，年級間的差異則易受到時限的調節。未來可擴展研究其它測驗形式、研究對象年齡或測量載具對於心像旋轉能力的影響，將有助於發現心像旋轉能力差異表現的條件，以及其差異之起源。

The study explored the factors influencing the elementary graders' performance in the computerized mental rotation test (CMRT) in each grade and in the total aggregate of grades of the subjects.
There were 814 students (430 boys and 384 girls) of elementary grades 4, 5, and 6 from the Metropolitan Taipei. The CMRT was developed for the study, following the construction procedures required for standardized tests. Subjects were randomly assigned to receive timed (6 min.) or untimed treatment, repeatedly took both types of items (mirror type and different structure type), and analyzed with three-factorial (time limit, item type, and gender) mixed experimental design to compare their CMRT performance.
Results showed that, in the total aggregate as well as in each grade of subjects, there were no significant three-way interaction nor two-way interaction, but there were significant main effects found for the three independent variables: The untime subjects outperformed the timed subjects, the score means of different structure items were higher than those of mirror items, and the boys outperformed the girls.
The above findings of main effects were in accordance with major literature. Further analyses uncovered something less found in literature in that there were significant differences caused from different time limits and grades in the scores of item types, and different time limits manifested larger impact on grade 5 children, possibly due to the fact that children's spatial ability experienced larger changes during this stage.
Main conclusions were that, there existed item type differences, gender differences and grade differences in the CMRT performance, and the grade differences were conditioned by the time limit. Future studies can explore the mental rotation performance with other item types, ages of subjects, and testing media to discover the conditions of differential performance of mental rotation ability as well as its origin of differences.

余民寧(2011)。教育測驗與評量-成就測驗與教學評量。台北：心理。

吳慧詩、鄭海蓮(2011年，10月)。以眼動追蹤系統探究空間能力之性別差異。論文發表於2011性別與科技研討會暨臺灣女性學學會年度研討會，淡江大學。

林逸農、鄭海蓮(2007年，11月)。線上互動式多媒體空間能力試題編製之研究。論文發表於2007心理與教育測驗學術研討會，國立政治大學。

林逸農、鄭海蓮、陳世玉(2007年，6月)。互動式多媒體空間推理遊戲教材之設計與發展─以「五連方」幾何圖形為例。論文發表於第二屆數位內容管理與應用學術研討會The Second Conference on Digital Contents Management and Applications( DCMA2007)，國立台南大學。

卓沛勳、蕭孟莛、鄭海蓮(2006年，10月)。二維空間幾何圖形之心智旋轉角度與積木難度探討：以五連方幾何積木為例。論文發表於第七屆海峽兩岸心理與教育測驗學術研討會，國立政治大學。

陳英豪、吳裕益(1994)。測驗與評量。高雄：復文圖書。

劉俊甫(2012)。電腦化心像旋轉測驗維度表現之比較。國立台灣科技大學數位學習與教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，台北。

簡茂發、何榮桂、鄭海蓮、區雅倫、卓沛勳(2007)。學業性向測驗(三)─空間分量表常模建立結案報告。台北市：大考中心。

簡茂發、何榮桂、鄭海蓮、區雅倫、卓沛勳、蕭孟莛、陳世玉(2008)。學業性向測驗之圖形分量表編製研究。考試學刊，4，1-26。

鄭海蓮、林逸農(2006年，10月)。國小男女學童在五連方幾何積木視覺空間能力測驗表現之研究。論文發表於第七屆海峽兩岸心理與教育測驗學術研討會，國立政治大學。

鄭海蓮、林建宏（2012）。具性別恆等測量基礎的空間能力性別差異，測驗學刊，59(2)，303-327。

鄭海蓮、陳世玉(2007)。標準化空間能力測驗之建模與驗證。教育研究與發展期刊，3(4)，181-215。

鄭海蓮、劉俊甫、李志謙(2012年，10月a)。電腦化心像旋轉測驗之差異表現何時始。第八屆台灣數位學習發展研討會Taiwan E-Learning Forum 2012 (TWELF 2012)，台南成功大學。

鄭海蓮、劉俊甫、李志謙(2012年，10月b)。電腦化心像旋轉測驗之性別差異(poster)。第八屆台灣數位學習發展研討會Taiwan E-Learning Forum 2012 (TWELF 2012)，台南成功大學。

Bors, D. A., & Vigneau, F. (2011). Sex differences on the mental rotation test: An analysis of item types. Learning and Individual Differences, 28(1), 129-132.

Caplan, P. J., & Caplan, J. B. (1997). Do sex-related differences exist, and why do people seek them out? In P. J. Caplan, M. Crawford, J. S. Hyde, & J. T. E. Richardson (Eds.), Gender differences in human cognition (pp. 52-80). New York: Oxford University Press.

Cheung, O. S., Hayward, W. G., & Gauthier, I. (2009). Dissociating the effects of angular disparity and image similarity in the mental rotation and object recognition. Cognition, 113(1), 128-133.

Cohen, D., & Kubovy, M. (1993). Mental rotation, mental representation and flat slopes. Cognitive Psychology, 25(3), 351-382.

Cooke-Simpson, A., & Voyer, D. (2007). Confidence and gender differences on the Mental Rotations Test. Learning and Individual Differences, 17(2), 181-186.

Cooper, L. A. (1976). Individual differences in visual comparison processes. Perception and Psychophysics, 19(5), 433-444.

Crocker, L. & Algina, J. (Eds.). (1986). Introduction to Classical and Modern Test Theory. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Geiser, C., Lehmann, W., & Eid, M. (2006). Separating “Rotators” from “Nonrotators” in the Mental Rotations Test: A multigroup latent class analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 41(3), 261-293.

Geiser, C., Lehmann, W., Corth, M., & Eid, M. (2008). Quantitative and qualitative change in children's mental rotation performance. Learning and Individual Differences, 18(4), 419-429.

Ginn, S. R. & Pickens, S. J. (2005). Relationships between spatial activities and scores on the mental rotation test as a function of sex. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 100(3), 877-881.

Gluck, J., Machat, R., Jirasko, M., & Rollett, B. (2002). Training-related changes in solution strategy in a spatial test: An application of item response models. Learning and Individual Differences, 13(1), 1-22.

Gluck, J., & Fabrizii, C. (2010). Gender differences in the mental rotations test are partly explained by response format. Journal of Individual Differences, 31(2), 106-109.

Goldstein, D., Haldane, D., & Mitchell, C. (1990). Sex differences in visual-spatial ability: the role of performance factors. Memory and Cognition, 18(5), 546-550.

Hahn, N., Jansen, P., & Heil, M. (2010). Preschoolers' mental rotation: Sex differences in hemispheric asymmetry. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 22(6), 1244-1250.

Hayward, W. G. (1998). Effects of outline shape in object recognition. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 24(2), 427-440.

Hayward, W. G., Zhou, G., Gauthier, I., & Harris, I. M. (2006). Dissociating viewpoint costs in mental rotation and object recognition. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 13(5), 820-825.

Hirnstein, M., Bayer, U., & Hausmann, M. (2009). Sex-specific response strategies in mental rotation. Learning and Individual Differences, 19(2), 225-228.

Hoyek, N., Collet, C., Fargier, P., & Guillot, A. (2012). The use of the Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotation Test in children. Journal of Individual Differences, 33(1), 62-67.

Janssen, A. B., & Geiser, C. (2010). On the relationship between solution strategies in two mental rotation tasks. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 473-478.

Jansen, P., Schmeltera, A., Quaiser-Pohlb, C., Neuburgerb, S., & Heilc, M. (2013). Mental rotation performance in primary school age children: Are there gender differences in chronometric tests? Cognitive Development, 28(1), 51-62.

Jeng, H.-L. & Chen, Y.-F. (2010, July). Testing Invariance of the Measurement Model underlying Standardized Spatial Ability Test across Three Areas in Taiwan. Paper presented in the 7th Conference of International Test Commission, the Chinese University of Hong Kong (CUHK), Hong Kong.

Jeng, H.-L., Liu, G.-F., & Chuang, Y.-W. (2013, May). A multimedia test design to achieve equivalence of mental rotation performance in static and animation forms. Paper presented in the International Conference of Science Educators and Teachers (ISET 2013), Pattaya.

Jeng, H.-L., Lai, W.-Y., & Chao, A.-K. (2010, October). Modeling Spatial Geometric Reasoning. Paper presented in the 15th Conference on Attention and Perception, Intersecting Social and Cognitive Neurosciences, National Chung Cheng University, Chiayi.

Jeng, H.-L., & Wu, H.-S. (2013, May). Gender difference of spatial cognition in eye movement experiments for subjects with higher education. Paper presented in the International Conference of Science Educators and Teachers (ISET 2013), Pattaya.

Jeng, H.-L. & Yu, H.-W. (2011, July). Structure Model Competition of the Standardized Spatial Ability Test. Paper presented in Pacific Rim Objective Measurement Symposium (PROMS) 2011, National Institute of Education, Singapore.

Jordan, K., Wuestenberg, T., Heinze, H. J., Peters, M., & Jaencke, L. (2002). Women and men exhibit different cortical activation patterns during mental rotation tasks. Neuropsychologia, 40(13), 2397-2408.

Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1985). Cognitive coordinate system. Accounts of mental rotation and individual differences in spatial ability. Psychological Review, 92(2), 137-172.

Kerns, K. A., & Berenbaum, S. A. (1991). Sex differences in spatial ability in children. Behavior Genetics, 21(4), 383-396.

Kucian, K., von Aster, M., Loenneker, T., Dietrich, T., Mast, F. W., & Martin., E. (2007). Brain activation during mental rotation in school children and adults. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114(5), 675-686.

Kucian, K., Loenneker, T., Dietrich, T., Martin, E., & von Aster, M. (2005). Gender differences in brain activation patterns during mental rotation and number related cognitive tasks. Psychology Science, 47(1), 112-131.

Lawson, R., & Jolicoeur, P. (2003). Recognition thresholds for plane-rotated pictures of familiar objects. Acta Psychologica, 112(1), 17-41.

Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence characterization of sex differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child development, 56(6), 1479-1498.

Lohman, D. F. (1988). Spatial abilities as traits, processes, and knowledge. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence, 181-248. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Masters, M. S. (1998). The gender difference on the Mental Rotations Test is not due to performance factors. Memory and Cognition, 26(3), 444-448.

Masters, M. S., & Sanders, B. (1993). Is the gender difference in mental rotation disappearing? Behavior Genetics, 23(4), 337-341.

McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889-918.

Monahan, J. S., Harke, M. A., & Shelley, J. R. (2008). Computerizing the Mental Rotations Test: Are gender differences maintained? Behavior Research Methods, 40(2), 422-427.

Moore, D. S., & Jonhson, S. P. (2008). Mental Rotation in Human Infants: A Sex Difference. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1063-1066.

Neubauer, A. C., Bergner, S., & Schatz, M. (2010). Two-vs. three-dimensional presentation of mental rotation tasks: Sex differences and effects of training on performance and brain activation. Intelligence, 38(5), 529-539.

Neuburger, S., Jansen, P., Heil, M., & Quaiser-Pohl, C. (2011). Gender differences in pre-adolescents' mental-rotation performance: Do they depend on grade and stimulus type? Personality and Individual Differences, 50(8), 1238-1242.

Noar, S. M. (2003). The role of structural equation modeling in scale development. Structral Equation Modeling, 10(4), 622-647.

Ostatnikova, D., Hodosy, J., Skoknova, M., Putz, Z., Kudela, M., & Celec, P. (2010). Spatial abilities during the circalunar cycle in both sexes. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 484-487.

Peters, M. (2005). Sex differences and the factor of time in solving Vandenberg and Kuse mental rotation problems. Brain and Cognition, 57(2), 176-184.

Peters, M., Laeng, B., Latham, K., Jackson, M., Zaiyouna, R., & Richardson, C. (1995). A redrawn Vandenberg and Kuse Mental Rotations Test: Different versions and factors that affect performance. Brain and Cognition, 28(1), 39-58.

Piaget, J. & Inhelder, B. (1967). A Child's Conception of Space. NY: Norton.

Quaiser-Pohl, C., Geiser, C., & Lehmann, W. (2006). The relationship between computer-game preference, gender, and mental-rotation ability. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(3), 609-619.

Quaiser-Pohl, C., Rohe, A. M., & Amberger, T. (2010). The solution strategy as an indicator of the developmental stage of preschool children's mental-rotation ability. Journal of Individual Differences, 31(2), 95-100.

Quinn, P.C., & Liben, L. S. (2008). A sex difference in mental rotation in young infants. Psychological Science, 19(11), 1067-1070.

Raabe, S., Hoger, R., & Delius, J. D. (2006). Sex differences in mental rotation strategy. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 103(3), 917-930.

Resnick, S. M. (1993). Sex differences in mental rotations: An effect of time limits? Brain and Cognition, 21(1), 71-79.

Rilea, S. L. (2008). A lateralization of function approach to sex differences in spatial ability: A reexamination. Brain and Cognition, 67(2), 168-182.

Rilea, S. L., Roskos-Ewoldsen, B., & Boles, D. (2004). Sex differences in spatial ability: A lateralization of function approach. Brain and Cognition, 56(3), 332-343.

Scali, R. M., Brownlow, S., & Hicks, J. L. (2000). Gender differences in spatial task performance as a function of speed or accuracy orientation. Sex Roles, 43(5-6), 359-376.

Shepard, R. N., & Cooper, L. A. (1982). Mental images and their transformations. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Shepard, R. N., & Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science, 171(3972), 701-703.

Titze, C., Heil, M., & Jansen, P. (2008). Gender differences in the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) are not due to task complexity. Journal of Individual Differences, 29(3), 130-133.

Titze, C., Jansen, P., & Heil, M. (2010). Mental rotation performance and the effect of gender in fourth and adults. Europan Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7(4), 432-444.

Titze, C., Jansen, P., & Heil, M. (2011). Single-Sex School Girls Outperform Girls Attending a Co-Educative School in Mental Rotation. Sex Roles, 65(9), 704-711.

Vandenberg, S. G., & Kuse, A. R. (1978). Mental rotations, a group test of three- dimensional spatial visualization. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 47(2), 599-604.

Voyer, D. (1997). Scoring procedure, performance factors, and magnitude of sex differences in spatial performance. American Journal of Psychology, 110(2), 259-276.

Voyer, D., & Doyle, R. A. (2010). Item type and gender differences on the Mental Rotations Test. Learning and Individual Differences, 20(5), 469-472.

Voyer, D., & Hou, J. (2006). Type of items and the magnitude of gender differences on the mental rotations test. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 60(2), 91-100.

Voyer, D., Rodgers, M. A., & McCormick, P. A. (2004). Timing conditions and the magnitude of gender differences on the Mental Rotations Test. Memory and Cognition, 32(1), 72-82.

Voyer, D. & Sullivan, A. M. (2003). The relation between spatial and mathematical abilities: Potential factors underlying suppression. International Journal of Psychology, 38(3), 11-23.

Voyer, D., Voyer, S., & Bryden, M. P. (1995). Magnitude of sex differences in spatial abilities: A meta-analysis and consideration of critical variables. Psychological Bulletin, 117(2), 250-270.