本研究旨在探討國小學童的視覺空間能力以及透過實驗教學後的改變情形，以五連方幾何積木為八週實驗教學課程設計的依據和自編個別式測驗的素材，研究對象為台北縣市的中高年級國小學童，進行課程活動和活動前後的測驗。
在實驗教學課程進行前，針對實驗組和控制組學童進行前測，以探討不同組別、性別和年級的學童在視覺空間能力上的表現。經過統計分析後發現，實驗組學童和他組學童的表現相當；男女之間無顯著差異，但男童表現稍優於女童；中高年級之間亦無顯著差異，但高年級學童表現稍優於中年級學童。此階段的分析結果確認，在實驗學前不同組別、性別和年級學童之間並無顯著差異，亦符合文獻探討的結論。
第二階段採準實驗研究法中的單組前測-後測設計，針對實驗組學童進行實驗教學以及後測，統計分析測驗的結果發現，整體而言，學童完成測驗題目的人數比率增加並且用更少的時間完成，表示視覺空間能力有提升的現象；男女學童在後測的表現仍沒有顯著差異，但女童表現稍優於男童，表示女童的進步幅度稍大一些。
本研究的結論是國小學童的視覺空間能力的確可以經由幾何積木的教學課程提升，只要提供適當的環境和機會，引導學童探索、思考和練習幾何積木等相關材料，不論男女都有發展空間能力的潛能。

The purpose of this study is to understand school children’s visual-spatial ability and its change after experimental teaching. Geometric Pentomino is the design material for the eight-week experimental course and the self-developed individualized test. Research participants were third to sixth graders in Taipei area. They attended the course and took the prior-test and post-test.
Before the experimental course was taken place, prior-test was administered to all the groups of children. Statistical analyses of the test results reveal that there is no significant difference between experimental and control groups; there is no significant difference between boys and girls, but boys performed a little bit better than girls; there is no significant difference between middle and high graders, however high graders performed a little bit better than middle graders. The results of the research stage confirmed that before the experiment was initiated, all children performed about the same, and the results confirmed to literature research.
The research design of the second stage was quasi-experimental one group prior- and post-test design. Only the experimental group participated the course and took the post-test. Statistical analyses of the post-test results showed that, in general, children’s visual-spatial ability increased because the percentages of task completion increased with less time spent; there is still no significant difference between the genders, however, girls performed a little bit better than boys.
The conclusion of the study is that school children’s visual-spatial ability can be improved through geometric Pentomino course. If environment and opportunity is provided to help children explore, think, and practice similar materials such as geometric puzzles and cubes, all genders have the potential to develop their visual-spatial ability.

中文部分
丁振豐（1994）。三個心理學派典對空間能力研究的比較。初等教育學報，7，213-249 。
丁錦紅、王東暉、林仲賢（1998） 。平滑運動條件的圖形顏色及形狀加工特性的研究。心理科學， 21， 5- 8 。
左台益、梁勇能（2001）。國二學生空間能力與van Hiele 幾何思考層次相關性研究。師大學報，46（12），1-20。
朱敬先（1983）。幼兒教育。台北市：五南。
朱錦鳳（2003）。圖形思考智能測驗的發展。測驗學刊，50（1），25-46。
李平（譯）（ 2003）。T. Armstrong著。經營多元智慧-開展以學生為中心的教學（第二版）。台北市：遠流。
杞昭安（1992）。 國小兒童圖形認知之研究。特殊教育學報，7，219-265。
林世華（2004)。如何看待孩子的學習評量與成就？人本教育札記，180，40-43。
吳文如（2003）。國中生空間能力與數學成就相關因素之研究。國立台北師範學院數理教育研究所。全國博碩士論文資訊網，092NTPTC476031。
吳貞祥（1980）。國民小學數學教學的基礎－數量形。台北：幼獅文化。
吳德邦、鄭佳昇（2001）。由表徵觀點初探國小兒童立體幾何概念之研究。中華民國第十七屆科學教育學術研討會暨第十四屆科學教育學會年會，高雄市國立高雄師範大學，民國90年12月7-8日（星期五、六）。
洪清一（1999）。知覺─動作訓練。台北市：五南。
洪蘭（譯）（2000）。A. Moir & D. Jessel 著。腦內乾坤 ：男女有別，其來有自。台北市：遠流。
袁之（1991）。視覺訊息處理管道之互動關係研究。國立臺灣大學心理研究所博士論文。全國博碩士論文資訊網，079NTU02071004。
莊月嬌、張英傑（2005）。九年一貫課程小學幾何教材內容與份量之分析。國立臺北教育大學學報，19（1），33～66。
教育部（無日期）。教學課程相關資訊。2005年12月4日，取自http://www.edu.tw/
康鳳梅（2001）。機械製圖交線與展開提升學生空間能力之研究。第十六屆全球技術及職業教育研討會論文，313-322。
張春興（1989）。教育心理學－三化取向的理論與實踐。台北：東華書局。
張春興、林清山（1991）。教育心理學。台北市：東華書局。
張英傑（2001）。兒童幾何形體概念之初步探究。國立臺北師範學院學報，14，493-496
張英傑，周菊美（譯）（2005）。J. A. van de Walle著。中小學數學科教材教法。台北市：五南。
張麗芬（1989）。兒童空間認知能力發展之研究。教育與心理研究，12，249-281。
郭生玉（1981）。心理與教育研究法。台北市：精華。
郭武雄（無日期）。知覺發展與美勞教育關係之初探。2006年4月1日，取自http://www.naer.edu.tw/study/art/childart/down.htm
陳淑美（1990）。比西量表。諮商與輔導，56，23-26。
陳榮華、陳心怡（1997）。魏氏成人智力量表第三版(WAIS-III)。台北：中國科學行為社。
蔡崇建（1991）。智力的評量與分析─魏氏兒童智力量表／比西智力量表。台北市：心理。
謝如山、謝名起、謝名娟（譯）（2002）。C. A. Riedesel, J. E. Schwartz, & D. H. Clements著。數學科教材教法。台北市：五南。
襲充文、李明燕、吳家怡、區雅倫、朱惠文（2003）。空間推理能力測驗研究第一期計畫研究報告。大學入學考試中心（研-91-028）。
襲充文 、 陳上文（1993）。注意力焦點的大小及其在視覺空間中之移動。中華心理學刊， 45（3），38-45。

西文部分
Abrohms, A. (1992). Problem solving with pentominoes. Illinois: Learning Resources.
Airasian, P. W. (1996). Assessment in the classroom. New York: McGraw-Hall.
Ayres, A. J. (1980). Sensory integration and learning disorders. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.
Ben-Chaim, D., Lappan, G., & Houang, R. T. (1989). Adolescents' abilityto communicate spatial information: Analyzing and effecting students'performance. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 20, 121-146.
Brinkmann, E. H. (1966). Programed instruction as a technique for improving spatial visualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 50(2), 179-184.
Caplan, P. J., MacPherson, G. M., & Tobin, P. (1985). Do sex-related differences in spatial ability exist? A multilevel critigue with new data. American Psychologist, 40(7), 786-799.
Clements, D. H., & Battista, M.T. (1990). Geometry and spatial reasoning. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.), Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 420-464). NY: Macmillan.
Cornell, E. H., & Heth, H. D. (1984). Children's acquistion of a rote via different media. Environment and Behavior, 16(5), 627-641.
Duval, R. (1998). Geometry from a cognitive of view. Perspectives on the teaching of geometry for the 21st century. An ICMI Study.
Elizabeth. W. (1995). Facility with plane shapes: A multifaceted skill. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 28(4), 365-383
Fischbein, E. (1987). Intuition in science and mathematics：An Educational Approach. Holland：Dordrecht Reidel.
Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. NY: Basic Books.
Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence Reframed. NY: Basic Books.
Goldstein, E. B. (1999). Sensation & Perception (5th ed). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Grande, J. D. (1990). Spatial Sense. Arithmetic Teacher, 37(6), 14-20.
Guilford, J. P. (1956). The Structure of Intellect. Psychological Bulletin, 53(1956), 267-239.
Guilford, J. P. (1988). Some changes in the structure of intellect model. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 48, 1- 4.
Hazen, N. L. (1982). Spatial exploration and spatial knowledge: Individual and development difference in very young children. Child Development, 53, 826-833.
Herman, J. F., Kline, C. A., & Blomguist, S. L. (1986). Development difference in the use of an abstrct reference frame to infer spatial relationship. Developmental Psychology, 22(4), 468-476.
Herman, J.F., Cachuela, G.M. & Heins, J.A. (1987). Children's and adult's long-term memory for spatial locations over and extended time period. Developmental Psychology, 23(4), 509-513.
Hirschhorn, D. (2001). Try it! Pentominoes. Illinois: Learning Resources.
Ives, W., & Houseworth, M. (1980). The role of standard orientation in children's drawing of interpersonal relationship: Aspects of graphic feature marking. Child Development, 51, 591-593.
Johnson, E. S., & Meade, A. C. (1987). Developmental patterns of spatial ability: An early sex difference. Child Development, 58, 725-740.
Jones, G. (1994). The puzzling world of tangrams and pentominoes. Ontario: Exclusive Educational Products.
Kephart, N. (1960). The slow learner in the classroom. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merill.
Krutetskii, V. A. (1976). The psychology of mathematical abilities in schoolchildren. The University of Chicago Press.
Lincoln, A. J., Allen, M., & Kilman, A. (1995). The assessment and interpretation of
intellectual abilities in people with autism. In E. Schopler & G. Mesibov (Eds.),
Learning and cognition in autism, 89–117. NY: Plenum Press.
Linn, M. C., & Petersen, A. C. (1985). Emergence and characterization of sex-
differences in spatial ability: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 56, 1479-1478.
Linn, R. L. & Gronlund, N. E. (1995). Measurement and assessment in teaching. London: Prentice-Hall.
Livingstone, M. S., & Hubel, D. H. (1984). Anatomy and physiology of a color system in the primate visual cortex. Journal of Neuroscience, 4, 309-356.
Livingstone, M. S., & Hubel, D. H. (1987). Psychophysical evidence for separate channels for the perception of form, color, movement, and depth. Journal of Neuroscience , 7, 3416-3468.
Lohman, D. F. (1988). Spatial abilities as traits, processes, and knowledge. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Advances in the Psychology of Human Intelligence, 4, 181-248. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Lord, T. R. (1985). Enhancing the visuo-spatial aptitude of students. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 22(5), 395-405.
Marks, L. E. (1978). Multimodal Perception. Handbook of Perception, 8, 321-339.
McCormack, A. (1988). Visual /spatial thinking: An element of elementary school science. Council for Elementary Science International. San Diego State University.
McGee, M. G. (1979). Human spatial abilities: Psychomertic studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. Psychological Bulletin, 86(5), 889-918.
Mckim, R. H., (1980). Experiences in visual thinking. Monterey, CA: Brooks Cole.
Mitchelmore, M. C. (1976). Cross-cultural research on concept of spaceand geometry. In J. L. Martin & D. A. Bradbard (Eds.), Space and geometry: Papers from a research workshop (pp. 143-184). Columbus, OH: ERIC Center for Science, Mathematics, and Environmental Education.
Monaghan, F. (2000). What difference does it make? Children’s views of the differences between some quadrilaterals. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 42,179-196.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (1989). Curriculum and evaluation standards, p. 42. Reston, VA: The Author.
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, Commission on Standards for School Mathematics (2000). Principles and Standards for School Mathematics. Reston, VA: The Author.
Pentomino, Homepage (n.d.). Retrieved on May 10, 2006, from http://membres.lycos.fr/pentomino/
Piaget, J. (1972). The child and Reality: Problems of Genetic Psychology. New York: Grossman.
Puzzles.COM Home. (n.d.). Retrieved on May 20, 2006, from http://www.puzzles.com/index.htm
Richmond, P.G. (1980). A limited sex difference in spatial test scores with a preadolescent sample. Child Development, 51, 601-602.
Rosser, R. A. (1983). The emergence of spatial perspective taking: An information-processing alternative to egocentrism. Child Development, 54, 660-668.
Smith, W. S., & Schroeder, C. K. (1979). Instruction of fourth grade
girls and boys on spatial visualization. Science Education, 63(1), 61-66.
Smyser, E. M. (1994). The effects of " the Geometric Supposer": Spatialability, van Hiele levels, and achievement. Doctoral dissertation. The Ohio State University, Columbus.
Spearman, C. (1927). The nature of“intelligence”and the principles of cognition. (2nd ed.). London: Macmillan.
Sternberg, R. J. (1988). The triarchic mind : a new theory of human intelligence. NY: Penguin Books.
Thurstone, L. L. (1938). Primary mental abilities. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press.
Tracy, L. (1987). Children’s play preferences, construction play with blocks, and
visual-spatial skills: Are they related? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23(4), 855–872.
Usiskin, Z. (1988). Conceptions of school algebra and uses of variables. In A. Coxford (Ed.), The Ideas of Algebra (pp. 8-19). Reston, VA: NCTM.
Venerhus, L. & Kreling, S. (1996). Sex Differences in Visual Spatial Ability in 9-Year-Old Children. INTELLIGENCE , 23, 33-43.
Wechsler, D. (1958). The measurement and appraisal of adult intelligence (4th ed.).
Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.
Welcome to Gerard's Pentomino Page. (n.d.). Retrieved on May 17, 2006, from http://www.xs4all.nl/~gp/pentomino.html
Wheatley, G. H. (1991). Constructivist perspectives on science and mathematics learning. Science Education, 75(1), 9-21.
Williams, H.G. (1983). Perceptual and motor development. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Wilson, P. H., & McKenzie, B. E. (1998). Information processing deficits associated with developmental coordination disorder: A meta-analysis of research findings. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 829-840.
Wilson, P. S. (1990）. Inconsistent ideas related to definitions and examples. Focus on Learning Problems in Mathematics, 12(3), 31-47.
Winnick, J. P. (1990). Perceptual motor development adapted physical education and sport(2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.