本研究試圖以調節焦點(Regulatory Focus)為基礎，探討影響人們口碑傳遞行為是否受到調節焦點、消費者主觀知識因素影響。本研究採實驗法，共三個實驗，皆為二因子受測者間實驗:2(目標導向:促進(promotion)VS.預防(prevention)) x 2(主觀知識:高VS.低)，並以手機為產品。實驗一為在未使用過手機產品下，給予手機廣告，並探索口碑傳遞的情形，實驗二在正向購買情境下，並以正向口碑傳遞(PWOM)為依變數，實驗三在負向購買情境下，並以負向口碑傳遞(NWOM)為依變數。結果發現如下:
1.在未使用過手機產品下，促進導向者比預防導向者有更多口碑傳遞行為。
2.在正負向購買情境下，主觀知識高者比起主觀知識低者有更多口碑傳遞行為。
3.在正向購買情境且個體為低知識下，促進導向的人比起預防導向的人有更多口碑傳遞行為；在高知識下，促進導向者與預防導向者在口碑傳遞行為並無顯著差異。
4.在正向購買情境之下，促進導向者比起預防導向者有更多正面口碑傳遞行為。
5.在負向購買情境之下，預防導向者比起促進導向者有更多負面口碑傳遞行為。

This study tries to base on regulatory focus to investigate the relationship between regulatory focus, subjective knowledge and word-of mouth. In three experiments, there are all a 2 (goal orientation: promotion-focused vs. prevention-focused) × 2 (subjective knowledge: high vs. low) between-subjects factorial design, using cell -phone as experimental product. In experiment 1, we will give cell-phone DM before using cell-phone and explore WOM behavior. In experiment 2, it’s positive purchasing situation using positive WOM as a dependable variable. In experiment 3, it’s negative purchasing situation using negative WOM as a dependable variable. The conclusions of this study are as follows:
1.Before using cell-phone, promotion-focused people prefer WOM compared to prevention-focused people.
2.Under positive and negative situation, people with high subjective knowledge prefer WOM compared to people with low subjective knowledge.
3.Under positive situation and individual with low subjective knowledge, promotion-focused people prefer WOM than prevention-focused people. In high knowledge, three are no difference in WOM between promotion-focused or prevention-focused people.
4.Under positive situation, promotion-focused people prefer PWOM than prevention-focused people.
5.Under negative situation, prevention-focused people prefer NWOM than promotion-focused people.

Chapter 7 References
中文文獻
練乃華 (2003). 口耳相傳訊息之傳播及對消費者購買行為之影響:文獻回顧與評論.中山管理評論 第十一卷(第二期), 283-307.
英文文獻
Arndt, J. (1967). Word of Mouth Advertising: A Review of The Literature. New York, Advertising Research Foundation Inc.
Baker, T. L., Hunt, J. B., and Scribner, L. L. (2002). The effect of introducing a new brand on consumer perceptions of current brand similarity: the roles of product knowledge and involvement. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 10 (4), 45.
Bei, L. T., & Widdows, R. (1999). Product knowledge and product involvement as moderators of the effects of information and purchase decisions: a case study using the perfect information frontier approach. The Journal of Consumer Affairs, 33(1), 165-186.
Bettman, J. R., & Park, C. W. (1980). Effects of Prior Knowledge And Experience And Phase Of The Choice Process On Consumer Decision Processes: A Protocol Analysis. Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3), 234-248.
Bone, P. F. (1992). Determinants of Word-of-Mouth Communications during Product Consumption. Advances in Consumer Research, 19(1), 579-583.
Brown, T. J., Barry, T. E., Dacin, P. E., & Gunst, R.F. (2005). Spreading the word: investigating antecedents of consumers’ positive word-of-mouth intentions and behaviors in a retailing context. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 33(2), 123-38.
Brwon, J.J., & Reingen, P. H. (1987). Social Ties and Word-of-Mouth Referral Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 14(December), 350-362
Brucks, M. (1985). The Effects of Product Class Knowledge on Information Search Behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 12.
Buttle, F. A. (1997). I Heard It Through the Grapevine: Issues in Referral Marketing. In Proceedings of the 5th International Colloquium in Relationship Marketing, School of Management, Cranfield University, England.
Buttle, F. A. (1998). Word of mouth: understanding and managing referral marketing. Journal of Strategic Marketing, 6, 241-254.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F.(1981). Attention and self-regulation: A control-theory approach to human behavior. New York:Springer-Verlag.
Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F.(1990). Principles of self-regulation: Action and emotion. In E. T. Higgins & R. M. Sorrentino (Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 2(pp. 3-52). New York: Guilford.
Celsi R.L., & Olson J. C. (1988). The Role of Involvement in Attention and Comprehension Processes. Journal of Consumer Research, 15, 210-224.
Christiansen, T., & Tax, S. S. (2000). Measuring word of mouth: the questions of who and when?. Journal of Marketing Communications, 6(3), 185-199
Cole, C., Laurent, G.., Drolet, A., Ebert, J., & Gutchess, A. (2008). Decision making and brand choice by older consumers. Marketing Letters, 19(3), 355-365.
Cordell, V. V. (1997). Consumer knowledge measures as predictors in product evaluation. Psychology & Marketing, 14(3), 241-260.
Cowley, E., & Mitchell, A. A. (2003). The moderating effect of product knowledge on the learning and organization of product information. Journal of Consumer Research, 30(3), 443-454.
Crowe, E., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Regulatory focus and strategic inclinations: Promotion and prevention in decision-making. Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, 69, 117-132.
Cunningham, W. A., & Johnson, M. K. (2005). Attitudes and Evaluation: Toward a Component Process Framework. Manuscript in Preparation: University of Toronto.
Day, D. S. (1978), Are consumers satisfied? 3rd ed. New York: Free Press.
Derbaix, C. (2003). Inducing word-of-mouth by eliciting surprise-a pilot investigation. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24(1), 99-116.
Desmond Lan, D. M. (2005). The Effectrs of Locus of Control on Word-of-mouth Communication. Journal of Marketing Communications, 11(3), 215-228.
Dichter, E. (1966). How word-of Mouth advertising works. Harvard Business review, Nov-Dec, 147-166.
Dodd, T. H., Laverie, D. A., Wilcox, J. F., & Duhan, D. F. (2005). Differential Effects of Experience, Subjective Knowledge, And Objective Knowledge on Sources of Information Used in Consumer Wine Purchasing. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 29(1), 3-19.
Elizabeth C., & Hirschman, M. W. (1982). Motives underlying marketing information acquisition and knowledge transfer. Journal of Advertising, 11(3), 25-31.
Ennew, C.T., Bannerjee, A. K. & Li, D. (2000). Managing word of mouth communication: empirical evidence from India. The International Journal of Bank Marketing, 18(2), 78-83
Freitas, A.L., & Higgins, E. T. (2002). Enjoying goal-directed action: The role of regulatory fit. Psychological Science, 13, 1-6.
Feick, L. F., & Price, L. L. (1987). The Market Maven: A Diffusion of Marketplace Information. Journal of Marketing, 51, 83-97.
Gian Vittorio Caprara, D. C. (2000). Personality: determinants, dynamics, and potentials. Cambridge University Press: 488.
Hartline, M. D., & Jones, K. C. (1996). Employee performance cues in a hotel service environment: Influence on perceived service quality, value, and word-of-mouth intention. Journal of Business Research, 35, 205-217.
Hawkins, Del l., Roger J. Best and Kenneth A. Coney (1983). Consumer Behavior: Implications for Marketing Strategy. Plano.TX Business Publications, Inc.
Higgins, E. T., Bond, R. N., Klein, R., & Strauman, T. (1986). Self-discrepancies and emotional vulnerability: How magnitude, accessibility, and type of discrepancy influence affect. Journal o Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 5-15.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-Discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340.
Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 52, 1280-1300.
Higgins, E. T., Friedman, R. S., Harlow, R. E., Idson, L. C., Ayduk, O. N., & Taylor, A. (2001). Achievement orientations from subjective histories of success: Promotion pride versus prevention pride. European Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 3-23.
Higgins, E. T. (2002). How Self-Regulation Creates Distinct Values:The case of Promotion and Prevention Decision Making. Journal of consumer Psychology 12(3), 177-191.
Hirschman, E. C., & Wallendorf, M. (1982). Motives underlying marketing information acquisition and knowledge transfer. Journal of Advertising, 11(3), 25-31.
Hull, C. L. (1943). Principles of Behaviour. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Idson, L.C., Liberman, N., & Higgins, E. T. (2000). Distinguishing Gains from Nonlosses and Losses from Nongains: A Regulatory Focus Perspective on Hedonic Intensity. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 252-274.
Johnson, E. J., & Russo, J. E. (1984). Product Familiarity and Learning New Information. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 542-550.
Katz, E., & Lazarsfeld, P. F. (1955). Personal Influence. Glencoe,IL: Free Press.
Keller, J., & Bless H. (2008). When positive and negative expectancies disrupt performance: Regulatory focus as a catalyst. European Journal of Social Psychology, 2, 187 -212.
Lau, G. T., & Ng. S.(2001). Individual and situational factors influencing Negative Word-of-Mouth Behaviour. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 18 (3), 163-178.
Lee, A.Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2004). Brining the frame into focus: The influence of regulatory fit on processing fluency and persuasion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86, 205-218.
Lee, A.Y., & Aaker, J. L. (2006). The Role of Regulatory Focus in Preference Construction. Journal of Marketing Research, XLIII, 28-38.
Leonard-Barton, D. (1985). Experts as negative opinion leaders in the diffusion of a technological innovation. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 914-927.
Lockwood, P., Jordan, C., & Kunda, Z. (2002). Motivation by Positive or Negative Role Models: Regulatory Focus Determines Who Will Best Inspire Us. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(4), 854-864.
Long-Yi Lin, Chun-Shuo Chen (2006). The influence of the country-of-origin image, product knowledge and product involvement on consumer purchase decisions: an empirical study of insurance and catering services in Taiwan. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 23(5), 248-265.
Mangold, W. G. (1987). Use of Commercial Sources of Information in the Purchase of Professional Services: What the Literature Tells US. Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 3(1), 5-17.
Marsha L., & Richins, T. R.-S. (1988). The role of Involvement and Opinion Leadership in Consumer Word-of Mouth. Advances in Consumer Research, 15, 32-36.
Maxham, J. G. (2001). Service recovery's influence on consumer satisfaction, positive word-of-mouth, and purchase intentions. Journal of Business Research, 54, 11-24.
Monthersbaugh, D. L., Feick, L., & Park, C. H. (1992). Consumer Knowledge Assessment: How Product Experience and Knowledge of Brands, Attributes, and Features Affects What We Think We Know. Advances in Consumer Research, 19, 193-198.
Muthukrishnan, A.V., & Weitz, B.A. (1991). Role of product knowledge in evaluation of brand extension. Advances in Consumer Research, 18 (1), 407-413.
Myers, J. H. & Robertson, T. S. (1972). Dimensions of Opinion Leadership. Journal of Marketign Research, 11, 41-46.
Park, C. W., & Lessig, V. P. (1981). Familiarity and Its Impact on Consumer Decision Biases and Heuristics. Journal of Consumer Research, 8(3), 223-230.
Park, C. W., Mothersbaugh, D., & Feick, L. (1994). Consumer Knowledge assessment. Journal of Consumer Research, 21, 71-82.
Pham, M.T., & Avnet, T. (2004). Ideals and Oughts and the Reliance on Affect versus Substance in Persuasion. Journal of Consumer Research ,30(March), 503-18.
Raju, P. S., Lonial, S. C., & Mangold, W.G. (1995). Differential Effects of Subjective Knowledge, Objective Knowledge, and Usage Experience on Decision Making: An Exploratory Investigation. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 4(2), 153-180.
Richins, M. L. (1983). Negative Word-of-Mouth by Disssatisfied Consumers:A Pilot Study. Journal of Marketing, (Winter), 68-78.
Richins, M. L. & Root-Shaffer, T., (1988). The Role of Evolvement and Opinion Leadership in Consumer Word-of-Mouth, an Implicit Model Made Explicit. Advances in Consumer Research, 15,32-36.
Roese, N. J., & Summerville, A. (2008). Self-report measures of individual differences in regulatory focus: A cautionary note. Journal of Research in Personality, 42, 247-254.
Roney, C. J., Higgins, E. T., & Shah, J. (1995). Goals and framing: How outcome focus influences motivation and emotion. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 1151-1160.
Sengupta, J., & Zhou, R. (2006). Motivational Influences in Consumer Behavior: The Role of Regulatory Focus. Advances in Consumer Research, 33.
Settle, R. B., & Golden, L. L. (1974). Attribution theory and advertiser credibility. Journal of Marketing Research, 11, 181-185.
Shah, J., & Higgins, E. T. (1997). Expectancy * value effects: Regulatory focus as determinant of magnitude and direction. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 73, 447-458.
Singh, J. (1990). Voice, exit, and negative word-of-mouth behaviors: An investigation across three service categories. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science , 18 (1), 1-15.
Spiegel, S., Grant-Pillow, H., & Higgins, E.T. (2004). How regulatory fit enhances motivational strength during goal pursuit. European Journal of Social Psychology, 34, 39-54.
Sujan, M. (1985). Consumer Knowledge: Effects on Evaluation Strategies Mediating Consumer Judgment. Journal of Consumer Research. 12, 203-224.
Sundaram, D. S., Mitra, K., & Webster, C.(1998). Word-of-mouth communications: a motivational analysis. Advances in Consumer Research, 25(1), 527-31.
Sweeney, J. C., Soutar, G. N., & Mazzarol, T. (2005). The difference between positive and negative word-of-mouth—emotion as a differentiator. In Proceedings of the ANZMAC 2005 Conference: Broadening the Boundaries (pp. 331–337). Perth, Australia: University of Western Australia.
Ting, D. H. (2006). Further probing of higher order in satisfaction construct. The International Journal of Bank Marketing, 24(2/3), 98.
Wang, J. L., & Angela Y. (2006). The Role of Regulatory Focus in Preference Construction. Journal of Marketing Research, 43(1), 28-38.
Werth, L., & Foerster, J. (2007). How regulatory focus influences consumer behavior. European Journal of Social Psychology, 37, 33-51.
Zhu, P.-T. (2004). The relationship among community identification, community trust, and purchase behavior-the case of RVs communities. Masters degree thesis, Graduate School of International Business. National Dong Hwa University,Shougeng.
Zhu, R., & Meyers-Levy, J.(2007). Exploring the Cognitive Mechanism that Underlies Regulatory Focus Effects. Journal of Consumer Research, 34, 89-96.