以積層製造方式製作的生物醫學細胞結構之設計、優化及評估（髖關節植入和髖臼杯）

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研究生：	卡拉尤-梅肯嫩阿比特 Kalayu Mekonen Abate
論文名稱：	以積層製造方式製作的生物醫學細胞結構之設計、優化及評估（髖關節植入和髖臼杯） DESIGN, OPTIMIZATION, AND EVALUATION OF CELLULAR STRUCTURES USING ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING FOR BIOMEDICAL APPLICATION (HIP IMPLANT AND ACETABULAR CUP)
指導教授：	鄭正元 Jeng-Ywan Jeng
口試委員:	鄭逸琳 Yih-Ling Cheng 蔡明忠 Ming-Jong Tsai 鄭中緯 Zhong-wei Zheng 傅建中 Chien-Chung Fu 黃聖杰 Sheng-jye Hwang 鄭正元 Jeng-ywan Jeng
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	工程學院 - 機械工程系 Department of Mechanical Engineering
論文出版年：	2020
畢業學年度：	108
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	182
中文關鍵詞：	積層製造、細胞結構、孔隙率、設計和優化、有限元素分析、細胞植入物、髖關節細胞植入、髖臼杯細胞植入
外文關鍵詞：	Additive manufacturing, Cellular Structure, Porosity, Design and Optimization, Finite element analysis, Cellular implant, Hip cellular implant, Acetabular cup cellular implant
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蜂窩狀結構是由內部網格相互連接之板、單一晶格或支柱狀所組成的結構，並具有顯著的優勢如高能量吸收、高強度重量比和最少的材料需求。此外，由於其具有多孔性和輕量化的特點，是相較於實心固體的優勢所在，多孔隙的特性能滿足生物醫學應用及物理上的需求。甚至其機械性質也可以有所變化。

使用AM製造的細胞生物材料為承重的骨科植入物提供了新的機會。本文的第一部分提出了一種新穎的葡萄狀細胞結構，該結構具有五個不同的細胞結構，分別是立方體、四面體、六面體、八面體和菱形十二面體，進行模擬和實驗工作以了解單位尺寸、晶格拓撲、孔隙率和孔徑之間的關係。

Material Jetting（Projet 3510 HDMax 3D打印機）製程用於處理試片，其孔徑通過電光顯微鏡測量。結果表明，具有Vintiles晶格拓撲的孔結構比其他孔結構具有較小的應力和較小的變形。

這項研究不僅限於生物醫學應用之細胞結構，還比較了均勻密度和可變密度細胞結構的機械性能。最後，通過有限元分析測試了未優化和優化的Vintiles細胞結構，並使用Material jetting列印的試片進行了實驗，兩個結果均表明，優化後的細胞結構比未優化的細胞結構具有更低的應力和變形。
在本論文的第二部分中，將設計的Vintiles細胞結構引入髖臼和髖臼杯（AC）的置換中以減少應力屏蔽。整形外科中使用的最新型（髖關節和AC植入物）由更堅硬的材料製成，比天然骨骼堅固得多。剛度的急劇變化導致周圍骨組織的應力降低，這表示植入物周圍骨密度下降。骨量的減少會導致嚴重的交錯，例如人工關節周圍骨折。由蜂窩結構工程微體系結構製成的髖關節置換植入物能夠在考慮骨生長和製造限制的情況下減少應力屏蔽。第二部分著重於通過結合細胞結構允許骨組織生長並減少應力來設計和優化髖關節植入物。蜂窩狀髖關節植入物結合了具有特定支桿厚度和晶胞大小的晶格的拓撲結構，以滿足骨骼生長和生物力學仿製強度的要求。通過選擇雷射燒熔（SLM）使用Ti6Al4V材料開發了具有不同晶胞尺寸和孔隙率的優化細胞髖關節植入物。有限元分析（FEA）用於預測髖關節細胞植入物的機械性能，優化方法用於增強髖關節細胞植入物的機械效率。根據ISO 7206-4（2010）在靜態負載條件下進行了研究，以確保髖關節植入物的剛性降低。力-位移實驗和模擬結果表明，優化的蜂窩髖關節植入物的剛性比其固體同類物低62％相比之下，蜂窩式髖關節關節植入物的重量比實心髖關節植入物低50％。

最後，這項研究的結果顯示，孔隙率56％和58%的細胞植入物具有潛力用於修復和整形外科領域，以改善骨整合。此外，髖關節臼杯（AC）細胞植入物的結果表明，其優化的AC細胞植入物的剛度分別比通過模擬和實驗工作證實的非優化AC植入物高69％和71％。最後，我們開發了一種具有與人體骨骼相似的可接受的機械性能的交流植入物。

Abstract
Cellular structures are defined as structures made up of an interconnected network of plates, small unit cells, or struts, and acquire significant benefits such as excellent energy absorption, high strength-to-weight ratio and minimizing material requirements. Besides, cellular structures are promising applicants for biomedical applications due to their best capabilities over solid ones because of having porosity and light in weight. Cellular structure made with additive manufacturing provide an exciting potential for orthopedic load-bearing applications. The first portion of this dissertation presents a design of a novel vintiles cellular structure with existing five different cellular structures namely cubic, tetrahedron, hexagon, octagon, and rhombic dodecahedron were designed. Simulation and experimental work was conducted to understand the relationship between lattice topology, unit cell size, porosity and pore size. Material jetting (Projet 3510 HDMax 3D printer) process is used for produced samples, and their pore size are measure via electro-optical microscopic. The results show that the cellular structure with vintiles lattice topology performs less stress and less deformation than the other cellular structures. This study is not only limited to cellular structure design for biomedical applications but also compared the mechanical performance of uniform density and variable density cellular structures. Both non-optimized and optimized vintiles cellular structures are finally tested with FEA and experiments have been carried out on samples fabricated by material jetting, and both results have shown that the optimized cellular structure had much less stress and lower deformation than the non-optimized.

In the second portion of this dissertation, the developed vintiles cellular structure is introduced to Hip and Acetabular Cup (AC) replacement to reduces stress shielding. The current implants that are used in the orthopedic application (Hip and AC implant) are made from stiffer (solid) materials and are much more robust than the natural bone. The dramatic change in stiffness results in decreased stress on the surrounding bone tissue, which is expressed as a decline in bone density around the implant. The decrease in bone stock can prompt serious intricacies, for example, periprosthetic fracture. A hip replacement implant made of cellular structure engineered microarchitecture enables the stress shield to be reduced respecting bone growth and fabricating limitations. The optimized cellular hip implant incorporating with vintiles lattice topologies having specific strut thickness, unit cell sizes, and porosity to meet the requirements of bone growth and biomechanical imitation strength. Only optimized and selected porosities samples are manufactured using selective laser melting (SLM), and their morphological are assessed using Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEM). Finite element analysis (FEA) was used to predict the mechanical property of the hip cellular implant, and methods of optimization were used to enhance the mechanical efficiency of the hip cellular implant. Experimental studies were conducted under static loading conditions based on ISO 7206-4(2010) to determine the reduction in stiffness of hip cellular implants. The results shown that optimized cellular hip implant has 62% lower stiffness than its solid counterpart. In comparison, the weight of the cellular hip implant was 50% lower than the solid implant. Lastly, the findings of this study indicate that cellular implants with 56% porosity, and 58% have the potential to be used in prosthetic and orthopedic applications to improve osseointegration. Besides, the result for cellular acetabular cup (AC) implant shown that the optimized cellular AC implant is 69% and 71% higher stiffness than non-optimized AC implant confirmed by simulation and experimental work respectively. Finally, we developed an AC implant with acceptable mechanical performance similar to that of human bone.

 Contents
摘要    I
Abstract    III
Acknowledgments    V
Table of Contents    VI
List of Figures    XII
List of Tables    XVII

Chapter 1    Introduction    1
1.1    Background    1
1.2    A general overview of bone and implant    2
1.3    Statement Problem and Motivation    3
1.4    Objective    4
1.5    Outline of this dissertation    5

Chapter 2    Literature Review    8
2.1    The need bone replacements    8
2.2    Structural and Mechanical and Properties of Bones    9
2.3    Body structural properties and Bone Substitute Requirements    10
2.3.1    Bone mechanical properties and Bone Replacement Requirements    11
2.4    Bone Interfacing Implant    12
2.5    Factors Affecting Bone Ingrowth    15
2.6    Cellular Structures from Natural Occurrence to Engineering Applications    16
2.6.1    Natural Occurrences    16
2.6.2    Artificial Cellular Structures    18
2.7    Engineering Approaches to Cellular Material Selection    20
2.7.1    Figures of Merit    20
2.8    Relative Density Scaling Laws    24
2.9    Cellular Structures Manufacturing using AM    29
2.10    Commercial Software Tools for Generating Cellular Structure    31
2.11    Cellular Structure Analysis    32
2.12    Methods of design and optimization cellular structure    33
2.12.1    Classification of for the design of a cellular structure    33
2.12.2    Size, Shape, and Topology Optimization    34
2.12.3    Topology Optimization    36
2.12.4    Multivariable Optimization    38
2.13    Additive Manufacturing Technologies – State of The Art    39
2.14    Additive Manufacturing Processes    40
2.14.1    Material extrusion processes (e.g. FDM)    41
2.14.2    Stereolithography (SLA)    42
2.14.3    Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)    43
2.14.4    Material jetting (e.g. Objet, Solid scape)    43
2.14.5    Binder jetting (e.g. Z-corp, Voxeljet)    45
2.14.6    Sheet lamination (e.g. LOM)    45
2.14.7    Selective Laser melting (SLM)    46
2.15    Benefits and Limitations of AM Processes    48
2.15.1    Benefits    48
2.15.2    Limitations    49
2.16    Importance of AM for Fabricating Cellular Structures    51

Chapter 3    Design of cellular structure and cellular implant    52
3.1    Introduction    52
3.2    Methods for design of the cellular structure    54
3.2.2    Design of cellular structure samples    60
3.3    The design process of cellular implant    62
3.3.1    Unit cell type    62
3.3.2    Design of cellular hip implant using vintiles cellular structure    63
3.3.3    Design of acetabular cup implant using vintiles cellular structure    65
3.3.4    Identifying pores size and porosity    66

Chapter 4    Materials and Methods, Preliminary experiments    69
4.1    Introduction    69
4.2    Materials and methods    69
4.2.1    VisiJet M3 Crystal material    69
4.2.2    Ti-6Al-4V powder material    70
4.3    Machine set-up    71
4.3.1    ProJet 3500HD max    71
4.3.2    SLM MCP-Realizer 125 for fabricating cellular Hip implant    73
4.4    Post-processing    74
4.4.1    Heat treatment    74
4.4.2    Wire-Electric Discharge Machine (Wire- EDM)    75
4.4.3    Bead blasting - finishing    75
4.5    Measurements Characterization    76
4.5.1    Optical Electron Microscopy    76
4.5.2    Weighing Machine    76
4.5.3    Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)    77
4.5.4    Uni-axial compression test    78

Chapter 5    Simulation, Optimization and experimental Based Evaluation of the Mechanical property of Cellular Structures    79
5.1    Introduction    79
5.2    Design of cellular structure samples    79
5.2.1    Finite Element Analysis (FEA)    81
5.2.2    Optimization of cellular structures    82
5.2.3    Cellular structures Manufacturing Using Material Jetting AM    84
5.2.4    Sample preparation and fabrication    85
5.2.5    Mechanical testing    86
5.3    Results and Discussion    87
5.3.1    Simulation results of different cellular structure    87
5.3.2    The Effect of optimization on mechanical performance based on simulation    89
5.3.3    Effect of cell size, lattice topology and porosity on compressive behavior    90
5.3.4    Experimental results of optimized vs non-optimized vintiles cellular structures    92
5.4    Chapter Summary    93

Chapter 6    Develops A Novel Application of Vintiles Cellular Structure as Biomedical Implant for Metallic AM Parts    95
6.1    Introduction    95
6.2    Stress Shielding in Total Hip Replacements    95
6.3    Design and Experimental Procedure    97
6.3.1    Material    97
6.3.2    Design process    97
6.3.3    Finite Element analysis simulation of biomedical implants    101
6.3.4    Optimization process    103
6.4    Additive Manufacturing of cellular implants (Hip and Acetabular Cup)    105
6.5    Uniaxial compression test of cellular implant    107
6.6    Results and Discussion    109
6.6.1    SEM analysis of cellular implants    109
6.6.2    Finite element analysis (FEA) result    112
6.6.3    Mechanical Properties    116
6.6.4    Optimization results for cellular implants    121
6.7    Chapter Summary    122

Chapter 7    Conclusion and Future Work    124

Reference    127
APPENDIX    150
Article No. 1    150
Article No. 2    150
Article No. 3    151
Article No. 4    151
Appendix A    152
Design CAD files of six different lattice topology with unit cell size 4 × 4 × 4 mm    152
and various porosity a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d), tetra    152
e) octagonal, and f) cubic.    152
Appendix B    153
Design CAD files of six different lattice topology with unit cell size 5 × 5 × 5 mm    153
and various porosity a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d), tetra    153
Appendix C    154
Design CAD files of six different lattice topology with unit cell size 6 × 6 × 6 mm    154
and various porosity a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d), tetra    154
e) octagonal, and f) cubic.    154
Appendix D    155
Design CAD files of six different lattice topology with unit cell size 7 × 7 × 7 mm    155
and various porosity a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d), tetra    155
e) octagonal, and f) cubic.    155
Appendix E    156
Simulation result on stress and deformation in unit size 6 × 6 × 6mm lattice topology    156
a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d) tetra, e) octagonal, and    156
f) cubic.    156
Appendix F    157
Simulation result on stress and deformation in unit size 5 × 5 × 5mm lattice topology    157
a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d) tetra, e) octagonal, and    157
f) cubic.    157
Appendix G    158
Simulation result on stress and deformation in unit size 4 × 4 × 4mm lattice topology    158
a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d) tetra, e) octagonal, and    158
f) cubic.    158
Appendix H    159
Simulation result on stress and deformation in unit size 4 × 4 × 4mm lattice topology    159
a) vintiles, b) hexagonal, c) rhombic dodecahedron, d) tetra, e) octagonal, and    159
f) cubic.    159
Appendix I    160
Results of FEA (a) unit cell size 6 × 6 × 6 mm non-optimized, (b) 6 × 6 × 5 mm    160
optimized    160
Appendix J    161
Results of FEA (a) unit cell size 6 × 6 × 6 mm non-optimized, (b) 6 × 6 × 5 mm    161
optimized.    161




                                

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