This study aimed at identifying the impact of advertising type and product value on
customer behavior. Two types of advertisement (femvertising (actual self-congruence) and idealized or traditional advertising (ideal self-congruence)) and product value (hedonic and utilitarian) were conducted to investigate their impact on ad attitude, attitude toward brand and purchase intention. 488 survey responses were collected with online self-administered survey and analyzed through ANOVA and ANCOVA analysis.
The findings indicate that hypotheses were partially accepted. The results showed that consumers have a higher brand attitude and purchase intention in case of both ad types (femvertising and idealized female advertising). When consumers are presented with the femvertising, they have a higher brand attitude for utilitarian products than hedonic products. In addition, when consumers are presented with the idealized female advertising, they have a higher brand attitude for hedonic products than utilitarian products. This study provided a better understanding of femvertising and broadens the knowledge about the effects of product type and the use of different advertisement strategies in case of consumer responses.

Aaker, J. (1999). The malleable self: The role of self-expression in persuasion. Journal of Marketing Research, 36(1), 45-57.
Abitbol, A., & Sternadori, M. (2019). Championing Women’s Empowerment as a Catalyst
forPurchase Intentions: Testing the mediating roles of OPRs and brand loyalty in the
context of femvertising, International Journal of Strategic Communication, 13(1)
22-41.
Åkestam, N., Rosengren, S., & Dahlen, M. (2017). Advertising “like a girl”: Toward a better understanding of “femvertising” and its effects. Psychology & Marketing, 34(8), 795-806.
Alcoff, L. (1988). Cultural Feminism versus Post Structuralism: The Identity Crisis in Feminist Theory. Signs, 13(3), 405-436.
Angelique H. L. & Culley M. R. (2003). Feminism found: an examination of gender
consciousness in community psychology. Journal of Community Psychology 31(3),
189-209.
Armstrong, L., & Mallory, M. (1992, June 23). The diet business starts sweating. Business Week, pp. 22-23.
Aron, A., & Aron, E. N. (1986). Love and the expansion of self: Understanding attraction and satisfaction. New York, NY: Hemisphere Publishing Corp/Harper & Row
Publishers
Aron, E. N., & Aron, A. (2005). Love and expansion of the self: the state of the model. Personal relationships, 3(1), 45-58.
Astakhova, M., Swimberghe, K. R., & Wooldridge, B. R. (2017). Actual and ideal-self-
congruence and dual brand passion. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 34(7), 664-672.
Auster, C. J., & Ohm, S. C. (2000). Masculinity and femininity in contemporary American society: A reevaluation using the Bem Sex-Role Inventory. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 43(7-8), 499-528.
Bahadur, N. (2014). Dove 'Real Beauty' Campaign Turns 10: How A Brand Tried To Change
The Conversation About Female Beauty. HuffPost. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/01/21/dove-real-beautycampaign-turns-
10_n_4575940.html
Bain, J. (2016). “Darn right I’m a feminist. . .Sew what?” the politics of contemporary home dressmaking: Sewing, slow fashion and feminism. Women’s Studies International Forum, 54, 57-66.
Bardhan, N. R. (1995). Portrayal of women in the advertisements in India today —India’s Bardhan, N.R. (1995, August). “Portrayal of women in the advertisements in India Today — India’s leading current affairs magazine: 1984-1994.” Competitive paper presented at the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication 54 Convention, Advertising Division and Commission on the Status of Women,
Washington, D.C.
Batkoska, L., & Koseska, E. (2012). The impact of cognitive learning on consumer behaviour. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 44(1), 70-77.
Becker-Herby, E. (2016). The Rise of Femvertising: Authentically Reaching Female
Consumers. University of Minnesota (Digital Conservancy). Retrieved from
http://hdl.handle.net/11299/181494.
Belk, R., Bahn, K., Mayer, R. (1982). Developmental recognition of consumption symbolism. Journal of Consumer Research, 9(1), 4-17.
Bibi, N., & Grydeland, B. (2014). Images of women in advertising: a study of consumer
reactions to non-idealized models (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Master Thesis in
Marketing and Brand Management & International Business. Norwegian School of
Economics.
Bodur, H., Brinberg, O. & Coupey, E. (2000). Belief, affect, and attitude: Alternative models of the determinants of attitude. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 9(1), 17-28.
Brown J. & Gilespie D. (2016). Ladies, lipstick, and liberty: beauty trends within women’s social movements in 1960s America. Retrieved from http://web.nchu.edu.tw/pweb/users/wtsay/lesson/11680.pdf
Brown, A. (2014). Picture [im] perfect: photoshop redefining beauty in cosmetic
advertisements, giving false advertising a run for the money. Texas Review of Entertainment and Sports Law, 16, 87.
Burton, S., & Netemeyer, R. G. (1995). Gender differences for appearance-related attitudes and behaviors: Implications for consumer welfare. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 14(1), 60-75.
Chen, Y.-F., & Chang, S.-H. (2016). The online framing effect: The moderating role of
warning, brand familiarity, and product type. Electronic Commerce Research, 16(3),
355-374.
Cheng, H., & Wan, G. (2008). Holding up half of the “ground”: women portrayed in subway advertisements in China. Commercializing women: images of Asian women in the
media. Cresskill, NJ: Hampton Press, Inc.
Chiu, T. (2014). The Impact of Ad-Self-Congruency on Advertisement Attitude: The
Moderating Effect of Self-Esteem [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Pingtung
University of Science and Technology. Retrieved from https://hdl.handle.net/11296/rx565z
Chiu, T. (2014). The Impact of Ad-Self-Congruency on Advertisement Attitude: The
Moderating Effect of Self-Esteem [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Pingtung
University of Science and Technology. Retrieved from
https://hdl.handle.net/11296/rx565z
Cho, A., Kwak, S.-M., & Lee, J.-H. (2013). Identifying attentional bias and emotional
response after appearance-related stimuli exposure. CyberPsychology, Behavior &
Social Networking, 16(1), 50-55.
Choi, H., & Reid, L. N. (2016). Congruity effects and moderating influences in nutrient-claimed food advertising. Journal of Business Research, 69(9), 3430-3438.
Choy, M., & Kim, J. I. (2013). New brands diluting the personality of existing brands. Journal of Brand Management, 20(7), 590-607
Chung, K. H. (1997). Images of women and men in television commercials. Hankook Bang
song Hakbo, 9, 215-250
Chung, Y., & Huang, P. (2016). The Impacts of Brand Story Functions on Consumers'
Attitude Toward Advertising and Brand Attitude-Including The Moderating Role of
Brand Awareness. Journal of National Taipei College of Business, 27-30, 47-79.
Churchill Jr, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing
constructs. Journal of marketing research, 16(1), 64-73.
Clore, G. L. & Schnall, S. (2005). The influence of affect on attitude. In D. Albarracin, B.T.
Johnson, & M.P. Zanna (Eds.), The Handbook of Attitudes (pp. 437-489). New
Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Cohen, A. R. (1959). Some implications of self-esteem for social influence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 51-69.
Costa, J. A. (1994). Gender issues and consumer behaviour. London: Sage.
Crouch, A. & Degelman, D. (1998). Influence of female body images in printed advertising on self-ratings of physical attractiveness by adolescent girls. Perceptual and Motor skills, 87(2), 585-586.
Curran, P. G. (2016). Methods for the detection of carelessly invalid responses in survey data. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 66 (Septmeber), 4-19.
D’Enbeau, S. (2011). Sex, feminism, and advertising: The politics of advertising feminism in a competitive marketplace. Journal of Communication Inquiry, 35, 53-69
Daehong Communications (1999). Koreans: Changes in consumer buying behaviors and
lifestyles, 1989-1999. Vol. 1: Teens and Twenties.
Das, M. (2011). Gender role portrayals in Indian television ads. Sex Roles, 64(3-4), 208-222.
Davidson, L. (2015). Femvertising: Advertisers cash in on #feminism. The Telegraph.
Retrieved from http://www.telegraph.co.uk/women/womens
life/11312629/FemvertisingAdvertisers-cash-in-on-feminism.html
Deaux, K., & Lewis, L. L. (1984). Structure of gender stereotypes: Interrelationships among components and gender label. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(5),991-1004.
Dhar, R., & Wertenbroch, K. (2000). Consumer choice between hedonic and utilitarian goods. Journal of Marketing Research, 37, 60-71.
Ditto, P. H. and Lopez, D. F. (1992). Motivated skepticism: use of differential decision criteria for preferred and non preferred conclusions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63 (4), 568 - 584.
Dodds, W.B., Monroe, K.B. and Grewal, D. (1991) Effects of Price, Brand, and Store
Information on Buyers’ Product Evaluations. Journal of Marketing Research, 28,
307-319.
Drake, V. E. (2017). The impact of female empowerment in advertising (femvertising).
Journal of Research in Marketing, 7(3), 593-599.
Drigotas, S. M., Rusbult, C. E., Wieselquist, J., & Whitton, S. W. (1999). Close partner as sculptor of the ideal self: Behavioral affirmation and the Michelangelo phenomenon. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 293-323.
Edwards-Levy A. (2018). Here’s what America thinks about the me too movement now.
HuffPost. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/poll-me-too-sexual-
harassment_n_5b7dcbdde4b07295150f7e5e
Eisend, M. (2010). A meta-analysis of gender roles in advertising. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 38(4), 418-440.
Eisend, M., & Rosengren, S. (2020). The more the merrier: dealing with a multitude of
advertising effects. International Journal of Advertising, 39(2), 187-190.
Ekinci, Y., & Riley, M. (2003). An investigation of self-concept: Actual and ideal self-congruence compared in the context of service evaluation. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 10(4), 201-214.
England, P., Kuhn, A., & Gardner, T. (1981). The Ages of Men and Women in Magazine
Advertisements. Journalism Quarterly, 58(3), 468-471.
Etcoff, N., Orbach, S., Scott, J., & D’Agostino, H. (2004). The real truth about beauty: A global report. Retrieved from https://www.clubofamsterdam.com/contentarticles/52%20Beauty/dove_white_paper_final.pdf
Fishbein, M. (1963). An investigation of the relationship between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward that object. Human Relations, 16(3), 233-240.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, Attitude, Intention, and Behavior: An Introduction to Theory and Research. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 18(1),
39-50.
Frith, K. T., & Kavita, K. (2008). Commercializing Women in Asia: An Overview. In K.T.
Frith, & K. Kavita, (Eds.), Commercializing Women: Images of Asian Women In The
Media. New York, NY: The Hampton Press.
Fung, A. (2000). Feminist Philosophy and Cultural Representation in the Asian Context. Gazette (Leiden, Netherlands), 62(2), 153-165.
Furnham, A., & Skae, E. (1997). Changes in the stereotypical portrayal of men and women in British television advertisements. European Psychologist, 2(1), 44-51.
Furnham, A., & Skae, E. (2015). Changes in the Stereotypical Portrayal of Men and Women in British Television Advertisements. European Psychologist, 2, 44-51.
Gilbert, D. T., Giesler, R. B., & Morris, K. A. (1995). When comparisons arise. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(2), 227-236.
Goffman, E. (1976). Gender Display. In: Gender Advertisements. Communications and
Culture. London: Palgrave.
Grau, S. L., & Zotos, Y. C. (2016). Gender stereotypes in advertising: a review of current research. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 761-770.
Gresham, L. G., & Shimp, T. A. (1985). Attitude toward the advertisement and brand attitude: A classical conditioning perspective. Journal of Advertising, 14(1), 10-17.
Grubb, E. L., & Grathwohl, H. L. (1967). Consumer self-concept, symbolism and market
behavior: A theoretical approach. Journal of marketing, 31(4), 22-27.
Gulas, C. S., & McKeage, K. (2000). Extending social comparison: An examination of the unintended consequences of idealized advertising imagery. Journal of Advertising,
29(2), 17-28.
Hair Jr., J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010) Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education.
Han, E. K. (2012). A study on the change of masculine and feminine image in advertisement,1993-1999. Korean journal of broadcasting, 14(2), 243-277.
Hatzithomas, L., Boutsouki, C., & Ziamou, P. (2016). A longitudinal analysis of the changing roles of gender in advertising: A content analysis of Super Bowl
commercials. International Journal of Advertising, 35(5), 888-906.
He, Q., & Qu, H. (2018). The impact of advertising appeals on purchase intention in social media environment - analysis of intermediary effect based on brand attitude. Journal of Business Administration Research, 7(2), 17-30.
Higgins, E. T. (1987). Self-discrepancy: a theory relating self and affect. Psychological Review, 94(3), 319-340.
Homer, P. M. (2006). Relationships among ad-induced affect, beliefs, and attitudes: Another look. Journal of Advertising, 35(1), 35-51.
Hong, J. W., & Zinkhan, G. M. (1995). Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: The
influences of congruency, conspicuousness and response mode. Psychology and
Marketing, 12(1), 53-77.
Hosany, S., & Martin, D. (2012). Self-image congruence in consumer behavior. Journal of Business Research, 65(5), 685-691.
Hsiao, C., Tsai, C., & Chao, Y. (2017). The Research of Product Placement, Self-Concept Congruence, Product Involvement, Brand Attitude and Behavioral Intention - A
Case of Leofoo Amusement Park. Taiwan Journal of Marketing Science, 13(2), 97-
120.
Huber, F., Eisele, A., & Meyer, F. (2018). The role of actual, ideal, and ought self-
congruence in the consumption of hedonic versus utilitarian brands. Psychology &
Marketing, 35(1), 47-63
Hwang, Y. M., & Lee, K. C. (2020). An eye-tracking paradigm to explore the effect of online consumers’ emotion on their visual behaviour between desktop screen and mobile screen. Behaviour & Information Technology, 41(3), 1-12.
Hyuksoo, K., Jungsun, A., & Doohwang, L. (2016). Thin Female Characters in Children's
Television Commercials: A Content Analysis of Gender Stereotype. American
Communication Journal, 18(2), 27-44.
Jayachandran, S. (2015). The Roots of Gender Inequality in Developing Countries. Annual Review of Economics, 7(1), 63-88.
Johnson, C. E., & Petrie, T. A. (1995). The relationship of gender: Discrepency of eating attitudes and behaviors. Sex Roles, 33(5/6), 405-416.
Johnson, M. L. (2007). Third wave feminism and television: Jane puts it in a box. Indiana, IN:Indiana University Press.
Kahamba, J. S., & Sife, A. S. (2017). Analysis of Gender Stereotypes in Tanzania’s
Television Commercial Advertisements. University of Dares Salaam Library
Journal, 12(2), 59-74.
Kapoor, D., & Munjal, A. (2019). Self-consciousness and emotions driving femvertising: A path analysis of women’s attitude towards femvertising, forwarding intention and purchase intention. Journal of Marketing Communications, 25(2), 137-157.
Karulkar, Y., Arya, S., Gujral, S., Sharma, A., & Pokharna, M. (2019). Does femvertising matter? A study in the Indian context. International Journal of Research and Analytical Reviews, 6(1), 815-825.
Keller, K. L. (1993). Conceptualizing, measuring, and managing customer-based brand equity. Journal of marketing, 57(1), 1-22.
Khan, U., Dhar, R., & Wertenbroch, K. (2005). A behavioral decision theory perspective on hedonic and utilitarian choice. In S. Ratneshwar & D. G. Mick (Eds.), Inside consumption: Frontiers of research on consumer motives, goals, and desires (pp.144-165). New York, NY: Routledge.
Kim, H., Lee, D., Hong, Y., Ahn, J., & Lee, K.-Y. (2016). A content analysis of television food advertising to children: comparing low and general-nutrition food.
International Journal of Consumer Studies, 40, 201-210.
Kim, K. K., & Cha, H. (2008). Being a “good” woman in Korea: The construction of female beauty and success. In K. T. Frith, & K. Kavita, (Eds.), Commercializing Women:Images of Asian Women In The Media. New York, NY: The Hampton Press.
Klipfel, J., Barclay, A. and Bockorny, K. (2014). Self-Congruity: A Determinant of Brand Personality. Journal of Marketing Development and Competitiveness, 8(3), 130-143.
Knoll, S., Eisend, M., & Steinhagen, J. (2011). Gender roles in advertising: Measuring and comparing gender stereotyping on public and private TV channels in Germany. International Journal of Advertising, 30(5), 867-888.
Kotler, P., Cunningham, M. H., & Keller, K. L. (2008). A framework for marketing
management. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.
Kuczynski, A. (1998a). The incredible shrinking plus-size model. New York Times, P.4.
Kuczynski, A. (1998b). Some consumer magazines are getting real. New York Times. p.1.
Lazar, M. (2006). Discover the power of femininity! Analyzing the global “power femininity”in local advertising. Feminist Media Studies, 6(4) 505-517.
Lazer, W. (1985). Inside the mature market. American Demographics, 7(3), 23-25.
Lee, Y. H., & Mason, C. (1999). Responses to information incongruency in advertising: The role of expectancy, relevancy, and humor. Journal of Consumer Research, 26(2),
156-169.
Levy, J. C. (2008). Advertising to women: Who are we in print and how do we reclaim our image?. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 2(4), 75-86.
Lim, G., & Furnham, A. (2016). The Universality of the Portrayal of Gender in Television Advertisements: An East-West Comparison. Psychology, 7(13), 1608-1623
Lim, W. M., & Ting, D., H. (2011). The Construction of Beauty in Malay Magazine
Advertisements. Contemporary Management Research, 7(3), 173-196.
Li, F., Cheng, Y., Ma, L., Li, S., & Wang, J. (2022). Identification of reference genes provides functional insights into meiotic recombination suppressors in Gerbera
hybrida. Horticultural Plant Journal, 8(1), 123-132.
Liu, Q., Zhang, X., Huang, S., Zhang, L., & Zhao, Y. (2020). Exploring consumers’ buying behavior in a large online promotion activity: The role of psychological distance and involvement. Journal of theoretical and applied electronic commerce research,15(1), 66-80.
Lutz, R. J., MacKenzie, S. B. & Belch, G. E. (1983). Attitude toward the ad as a mediator of advertising effectiveness: Determinants and consequences. Advances in Consumer Research, 10(1), 532-539.
Lutz. R. J. (1985). Affective and cognitive antecedents of attitude toward the ad: A
conceptual framework. In L. F. Alwitt, & A. A. Mitchell, (Eds.), Psychological processes and advertising effects; Theory, research and application. Hillsdale, NJ:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associate.
Luyt, R. (2011). Representation of gender in South African television advertising: A content analysis. Sex Roles, 65(5-6), 356-370.
Mackenzie S. B., & Lutz, R. J. (1989). An empirical examination of the structural
antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context. Journal of Marketing, 23(2), 48-65.
MacKenzie, S. B., Lutz, R. J., & Belch, G. E. (1986). The role of attitude toward the ad as a mediator of advertising effectiveness: A test of competing explanations. Journal of Marketing Research, 23(2), 130-43.
Maclaran, P. (2012). Marketing and feminism in historic perspective. Journal of Historical Research in Marbrting. 4(3), 462-9.
Maclaran, P. (2015). Feminism’s fourth wave: a research agenda for marketing and consumer research. Journal of Marketing Management, 31(15-16), 1732-1738.
Makanyeza, C. (2014). Measuring consumer attitude towards imported poultry meat products in a developing market: An assessment of reliability, validity and dimensionality of the tri-component attitude model. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(20),874-881.
Malär, L., Krohmer, H., Hoyer, W. D., & Nyffenegger, B. (2011). Emotional brand
attachment and brand personality: The relative importance of the actual and the ideal
self. Journal of Marketing, 75(4), 35-52.
Malhotra, N. K. (1988). Self concept and product choice: An integrated perspective. Journal of Economic Psychology, 9(1), 1-28.
Milliman, R. E., & Erffmeyer, R. C. (1989). Improving advertising aimed at seniors. Journal of Advertising Research, 29(6), 31-36.
Moliner, M. A., Monferrer-Tirado, D., & Estrada-Guillén, M. (2018). Consequences of
customer engagement and customer self-brand connection. Journal of Services
Marketing, 32(4), 387-399.
Nelson, S. L., & Smith, R. B. (1988). The influence of model age or older consumers'
reactions to print advertising. Current issues and research in advertising, 11(1-2),
189-212.
Pan, W., & Peña, J. (2017). The Exposure Effects of Online Model Pictures and Weight
Related Persuasive Messages on Women’s Weight-Loss Planned Behaviors. Journal
of health communication, 22(10), 858-865.
Park D. H., Lee J., & Han,I. (2007).The effects of on-line consumer reviews on consumer purchasing intention: The moderating role of involvement. International Journal of Electronic Commerce,11(4), 125-148.
Park, J. K., & John, D. R. (2010). Got to get you into my life: Do brand personalities rub off on consumers?. Journal of consumer research, 37(4), 655-669.
Peter I. Bloch and Marsha L. Richins (1983), "Shopping Without Purchase: An Investigation of Consumer Browsing Behavior." Advances in Consumer Research, 10, 380-393.
Phillips, R., & Cree, V. E. (2014). What does the ‘fourth wave’ mean for teaching feminism in twenty-first century social work?. Social Work Education, 33(7):930-943
Pinhas, L., Toner, B. B., Ali, A., Garfinkel, P. E., & Stuckless, N. (1999). The effects of the ideal of female beauty of mood and body satisfaction. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 25(2), 223-226.
Rampton J. 2015. Four waves of feminism. Pacific University Oregon. Retrieved from
https://www.pacificu.edu/magazine/four-waves-feminism
Rea, J. (2012). “Actual Results May Vary”: Toward Fiercer National Regulation of Digitally
Manipulated Cosmetics Advertisements. William & Mary Journal of Women & The
Law, 19(1), 161-186.
Rodrigues, R. A. (2016). Femvertising: empowering women through the hashtag? A
comparative analysis of consumers’ reaction to feminist advertising on
twitter [Unpublished Doctoral dissertation]. Universidade de Lisboa (Portugal).
Retrieved from https://www.repository.utl.pt/handle/10400.5/12754
Rosenberg, M. (1979). Components of Rosenberg’s self-esteem scale. Conceiving the self. New York: Basic Books.
Rosenkrantz, P., Vogel, S., Bee, H., Broverman, I., & Broverman, D. M. (1968). Sex-role stereotypes and self-concepts in college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 32(3), 287-295.
Sanchez, C. A., & Alley, Z. M. (2016). Advertising effectiveness and attitude change vary as a function of working memory capacity. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 30(6), 1093-1099.
Schiffman, L. (2019). Consumer behaviour (12th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson.
Scott, L. (2005). Fresh lipstick: Redressing fashion and feminism. New York: NY: Palgrave.
Shabbir, M. S., Kirmani, M. S., Iqbal, J., & Khan, B. (2009). COO and brand name’s affect on consumer behavior and purchase intention in Pakistan. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 1(3), 84-95.
Shaw, P., Eisend, M., & Tan, Y. (2014). Gender-role portrayals in international advertising.
In H. Cheng (Ed.), The handbook of international advertising research (pp. 299-
312). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell.
Sheber, V. (2017). Feminism 101: What are the Waves of Feminism?. FEM Magazine.
Retrieved from https://femmagazine.com/feminism-101-what-are-the-waves-of-
feminism/
Sheehan, K., B. (2004). Controversies in Contemporary Advertising. Thousand Oaks,
CA: Sage Publications.
SheKnows Media (2016) SheKnows Media to Reveal New Research on #Femvertising and
Announce Winners of the 2016 #Femvertising Awards at Advertising Week 2016.
SheKnows Media. Retrieved from http://www.businesswire.com/news/home/
20160921005572/en/SheKnows-Media-Reveal-ResearchFemvertising-Announce-
Winners
Shi, J., Mo, X., & Sun, Z. (2012). Content validity index in scale development. Journal of Central South University (Medical Sciences), 37(2), 152-155.
Shrotryia, V. K., & Dhanda, U. (2019). Content validity of assessment instrument for
employee engagement. Sage Open, 9(1), 1-7.
Simmons, J. M. (1986). Gender differences of nonverbal power cues in television
commercials. In E.F. Larkin (Ed.), Proceedings of the 1986 Convention of the
American Academy of Advertising (pp. R72-R76). Norman: University of
Oklahoma Press.
Sirgy, J. M. (1982). Self-Concept in Consumer Behavior: A Critical Review. Journal of
Consumer Research, 9(3), 287-300.
Sirgy, J. M., Johar, J. S., Samli, A. C., & Claiborne, C. B. (1991). Self-congruity versus functional congruity: predicotrs of consumer behaviour. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19(4), 363-375.
Sivulka, J. (2009). Ad women: how they impact what we need, want, and buy. Amherst, N.Y., Prometheus Books.
Skey, M. (2017). ‘Mindless markers of the nation’: The routine flagging of nationhood across the visual environment. Sociology, 51(2), 274-289.
Spence, J. T., Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1975). Ratings of self and peers on sex role attributes and their relation to self-esteem and conceptions of masculinity and
femininity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 32(1), 29-39.
Sullivan, G. L., & O’Connor, P. J. (1988). Women’s Role Portrayals in Magazine Advertising: 1958-1983. Sex Roles, 18, 181-188.
Swann, W. B., Jr. (1983). Self-verification: Bringing social reality into harmony with the self.
In J. Suls & A. G. Greenwald (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on the self
(Vol. 2, pp. 33-66). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Taylor, K. A., Miyazaki, A. D., & Mogensen, K. B. (2013). Sex, beauty, and youth: An
analysis of advertising appeals targeting U.S. women of different age groups. Journal of Current Issues & Research in Advertising, 34(2), 212-228.
Tesser, A. (1988). Toward a self-evaluation maintenance model of social behavior. In B. Leonard (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (pp. 181-227). Academic Press.
Tsai, C., & Hsiao, C. (2017). The Relationships among Brand Image, Emotional Brand Attachment, Perceived Quality, Satisfaction, and Post-purchase Behavior: Self-
congruence as a Moderator. Sun Yat-Sen Management Review, 25(2), 443-487.
Tung, J. (2002). Bigger bodies are back. Good Housekeeping, 235(1), 133.
Turner, S., Hamilton, H., Jacobs, M., Angood, L., M., & Dwyer, D. (1997). The influence of fashion magazines on the body image satisfaction of college women: An exploratory analysis. Adolescence, 32(127), 603-614.
Voss, K. E., Spangenberg, E. R., and Grohmann, B. (2003). Measuring the hedonic and
utilitarian dimensions of consumer attitude. Journal of Marketing Research, 40(3),
310-322.
Wah, L. C. (1998) Feminism in Singapore’s Advertising. Media Asia, 25(4), 193-197.
Wallace, E., Buil, I., & de Chernatony, L. (2017). Consumers’ self-congruence with a “Liked” brand. European Journal of Marketing, 51(2), 367-390.
Wallace, K. (2015). Femvertising: Ads targeting women do plenty for brands. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2015/07/21/living/femvertising-ads-women-
girls-success-feat/index.html
Wolf, N. (1991). The beauty myth: How images of beauty are used against women. New
York: William Morrow.
Zaichkowsky, J. L. (1994). The personal involvement inventory: Reduction, revision, and application to advertising. Journal of advertising, 23(4), 59-70.
Zeisler, A. (2016). We were feminists once: From Riot Grrrl to CoverGirl, the buying and selling of a political movement.
Zeng, Y. (2018). The Impact of Advertising Appeals on Advertising
Effectiveness:Advertising Involvement as Moderating Variable [Unpublished master’s thesis]. National Kaohsiung Normal University. Retrieved from
https://hdl.handle.net/11296/26e2b6
Zha, X., Li, J., & Yan, Y. (2015). Advertising value and credibility transfer: attitude towards web advertising and online information acquisition. Behaviour & Information Technology, 34(5):520-532.
Zhu, X., Teng, L., Foti, L., & Yuan, Y. (2019). Using self-congruence theory to explain the interaction effects of brand type and celebrity type on consumer attitude formation. Journal of Business Research, 103, 301-309.
Zinkhan, G. & Hong, J. (1991). Self-concept and advertising effectiveness: A conceptual model of congruency conspicuousness and response mode. Advances in Consumer Research, 18(1), 348-354.