鋰-硫電池含硫聚合物正極材料的反應機理與制備｜國立臺灣科技大學博碩士論文系統

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研究生：	Misganaw Adigo Weret Misganaw Adigo Weret
論文名稱：	鋰-硫電池含硫聚合物正極材料的反應機理與制備 Deciphering the Reaction Mechanism and Fabrication of Sulfur-Containing Polymer Cathode Materials for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries
指導教授：	郭中豐 Chung-Feng Kuo 黃炳照 Bing-Joe Hwang
口試委員:	黃昌群 Chang-Chiun Huang 蘇威年 Wei-Nien Su Nae-Lih Wu Nae-Lih Wu Heng-Liang Wu Heng-Liang Wu
學位類別：	博士 Doctor
系所名稱：	工程學院 - 材料科學與工程系 Department of Materials Science and Engineering
論文出版年：	2020
畢業學年度：	108
語文別：	英文
論文頁數：	178
中文關鍵詞：	靜電紡絲、逆聚合、鋰硫電池、有機硫化合物、聚丙烯腈、硫化聚丙烯腈
外文關鍵詞：	Electrospinning, Inverse polymerization, Lithium-Sulfur batteries, Organosulfur compounds, Poly(acrylonitrile), Sulfurized-poly(acrylonitrile)
相關次數：	點閱：249 下載：0
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可持續、低成本、高能量密度和更長壽命電池的需求不斷增加，引起了廣泛的研究。由於鋰硫電池(Li-S)具有2566 Wh kg的高能量密度、低成本、天然資源豐富、對環境無害和高理論容量(1672 mAh g)而備受關注。儘管在過去幾十年中已有許多研究成果，但是一些既有的挑戰阻礙了Li-S電池的實際應用。為解決Li-S電池的問題，本文進行了深入的研究。
本研究以硫化聚丙烯腈聚合物（Sulfurized-poly(acrylonitrile, SPAN）為陰極，其特徵為主體聚合物及以共價鍵結的短多硫化物(S2-4)鏈，用以解決多硫化物的溶解和穿梭作用，提供有效的電化學性能；然而，鋰合成和儲存機制尚未清楚地理解。SPAN化合物中硫含量尚低（大多數低於50 wt％），在高速率下的倍率能力差。在本論文的第一項主題為陰極的SPAN合成和鋰的儲存機制。第二和第三項主題為Li-S電池設計並合成了纖維狀結構的陰極材料，以增加複合材料的硫含量並增強陰極的反應動力。
本文使用高分辨率交叉極化/魔角旋轉（CP-MAS）固態核磁共振（ssNMR）、傅立葉轉換紅外光譜（FTIR），研究了SPAN的合成反應、化學結構和鋰存儲機制、X射線光電子能譜（XPS）、元素分析（EA）技術和電化學分析。研究發現該化合物結構除了S-S和C-S鍵外還包含N-S和N=C-S。共價鍵的電化學斷裂導致在第一次循環中具有高的初始電容量和高的極化電壓。共價鍵在第一個循環中斷裂後，Li-C和Li-N鍵的給電子作用增加了共軛環結構的電子密度，並有利於減少第二次循環後的充電/放電電壓滯後，提供了高可逆的比容量、高庫侖效率亦延長了循環壽命，並且在第二次循環後具有低電壓滯後。顯示SPAN陰極的共價分子相互作用克服了多硫化物的溶解，防止活性物質的損失。此外，該結構還可用於設計有機陰極，提高電化學性能的同時伴隨著高活性物質負載。在循環陰極上進行研究，包括異位拉曼光譜和異位CP-MAS、ssNMR，以研究陰極的鋰儲存機制。
在第二項主題中，使用溶液電紡絲方法合成了相互連接的纖維狀陰極，然後在氬氣中進行熱處理，電紡互連纖維與熔融硫（以下稱為S@SP@SPAN）聚合，進行原位逆硫化。S@SP@SPAN的導電碳和相互連接的纖維形態的結合改善了陰極材料的電導率。因此，製備的纖維狀S@SP@SPAN陰極在第一、第二和第五十次循環中以0.1 C的速率提供了1914、1504、1460 mAh g-1的高比放電容量。此外，該陰極顯示出高的比放電容量。在第六次循環中的放電容量為1328 mAh g-1，在0.5 C的250次循環後仍保持1061 mAh g-1。更重要的是，在第六次循環中，陰極提供了1206 mAh g-1的高放電容量，並在2 C下200次循環後保留831 mAh g-1，庫侖效率幾乎為100％。
最後通過溶液靜電紡絲技術將具有三個硫醇基的三硫氰尿酸（TTCA）與聚丙烯腈(PAN)混合，以合成纖維狀TTCA/PAN，目的是增加共價鍵合的活性物質。靜電紡成的TTCA/PAN纖維通過逆硫化與硫聚合。因此，TTCA的引入使得纖維狀STTCA@SPAN陰極中的硫含量增加到58 wt％。牢固地化學鍵合的短鏈硫使STTCA@SPAN陰極與低成本的碳酸鹽基電解質顯現優異的相容性；且纖維陰極的初始放電容量為1301 mAh g-1，在0.1 C的速率下在400次循環中表現出優異的循環穩定性。當在碳酸鹽電解質中的濃度為0.2、0.5、1、2 C時，放電容量為1028、957、827和660 mAh g-1下具有較高的速率容量。在連續的充/放電過程之後，交聯的纖維形態仍保持陰極的結構穩定性。

The increasing demands for sustainable, low cost, high energy density, and longer lifespan batteries have drawn significant research attention. In this regard, lithium-sulfur batteries (LiS) have attracted great attention owing to their high energy density of 2566 Wh kg and by utilizing the low cost, natural abundance, environmental benignity, and high theoretical capacity (1672 mAh g) sulfur cathodes. Although numerous research efforts have been accomplished in the past decades, several intrinsic challenges have continued to hinder the real application of LiS batteries. Intense research efforts have been made to decipher the intrinsic problems of LiS batteries. Sulfurized-poly(acrylonitrile) (SPAN) based cathode materials have been studied since 2000.
SPAN polymer composites consisting of covalently bonded short polysulfide (S2-4) chains with the host polymer cathodes can decipher the polysulfide dissolution and shuttling effect and deliver promising electrochemical performance. However, the synthesis and lithium storage mechanisms are yet not being clearly understood. SPAN compounds also show low sulfur content in the composite (mostly below 50 wt%) and moderate conductivity leading to poor rate capability at a high C-rate. In the first work of this dissertation, the SPAN synthesis and lithium storage mechanisms of the cathodes are investigated. In the second and third work, fibrous structured cathode materials are designed and synthesized to increase the sulfur content of the composite and enhance the reaction kinetics for LiS batteries.
A plausible synthesis reaction, chemical structure, and lithium storage mechanism for SPAN are investigated using high-resolution cross-polarization/magic angle spinning (CPMAS) solid states nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), elemental analysis (EA) techniques, and electrochemical analysis. The analysis revealed that the compound structure contained NS and NCS in addition to SS and CS bonds. Post-mortem studies including ex-situ Raman and ex-situ CPMAS ssNMR were performed on the cycled cathodes to investigate the lithium storage mechanism of the cathode. The post-mortem results revealed that electrochemical cleavage of the covalent bonds resulted in high initial discharge capacity with high voltage polarization in the first cycle. Once the covalent bonds are cleaved in the first cycle, the electron donating effect of the LiC and LiN bonds increased the electron density of the conjugated heterocyclic structure and benefitted the decrease of the charge/discharge voltage hysteresis after the second cycle. As a result, it provided high reversible specific capacity, high Coulombic efficiency, and an extended cycle life with low voltage hysteresis after the second cycle. The results showed that the covalent molecular interactions of the SPAN cathode completely overcame the polysulfide dissolution, thereby preventing the loss of active materials.
In the second work, interconnected fibrous cathodes were synthesized using a solution electrospinning method followed by thermal treatment in an argon atmosphere. The electrospun interconnected fibers were polymerized with molten sulfur (hereafter labeled as S@SP@SPAN) through insitu inverse vulcanization by the thermal treatment in an argon atmosphere. The incorporation of conductive carbon and the interconnected fibrous morphologies of the S@SP@SPAN improved the conductivity of the cathode materials. Consequently, the prepared fibrous S@SP@SPAN cathode delivered high specific discharge capacities of 1914, 1504, and 1460 mAh g-1 in the first, second, and fiftieth cycle at a rate of 0.1 C. Moreover, the cathode revealed a high discharge capacity of 1328 mAh g-1 in the sixth cycle and maintained 1061 mAh g-1 after 250 cycles at 0.5 C. More significantly, the cathode delivered a high discharge capacity of 1206 mAh g-1 in the sixth cycle and retained 831 mAh g-1 after 200 cycles at 2 C with almost 100% Coulombic efficiency.
In the final work, trithiocyanuric acid (TTCA) with three thiol groups was mixed with PAN to synthesized fibrous TTCAPAN through a solution electrospinning technique so as to increase the contents of the covalently bonded active materials. The as-electrospun TTCAPAN fiber polymerized with sulfur through inverse vulcanization. Thus, the introduction of TTCA allowed to increase the sulfur content to 58 wt% in the fibrous STTCA@SPAN cathode. The strong chemically bonded short-chain sulfur enables the STTCA@SPAN cathode to show excellent compatibility with a low-cost carbonate-based electrolyte. Moreover, the fibrous cathodes exhibited an initial discharge capacity of 1301 mAh g, excellent cycle stability over 400 cycles at a rate of 0.1 C, and high rate capabilities of 1028, 957, 827, and 660 mAh g at rates of 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 2 C respectively in the carbonate electrolyte. The cross-linked fibrous morphology maintained the structural stability of the cathode after a continuous charge/discharge process.
Furthermore, the structural elucidation is found to be further applicable for designing organic cathode materials that could achieve high active material contents concomitantly with improving electrochemical performance.

摘要…………………………………………………………………………………….i
Abstract    iv
Acknowledgements    vii
Table of Contents    ix
List of Figures    xiv
List of Tables    xix
List of Schemes    xx
List of Units and Abbreviations    xxi
Chapter 1. General Background……………………………………………………..1
1.    Introduction to energy sources………………………………………………......1
2.    Renewable energy sources………………………………………………………2
3.    Rechargeable batteries…………………………………………………………..2
Chapter 2. Lithium-Sulfur Battery..............................................................................5
1.    Introduction to lithium-sulfur batteries………………………………………….5
2.    Components of lithium-sulfur batteries………………………………………….6
3.    Working principles of lithium-sulfur batteries………………………………......7
4.    Important parameters in lithium-sulfur batteries………………………………..11
5.    Challenges of lithium-sulfur batteries……………………………………….......12
5.1. The insulating nature of sulfur and its final discharge products…………….13
5.2. The large volumetric expansion of sulfur cathode upon lithiation………….14
5.3. Dissolution of higher-order lithium polysulfides…………………………...15
5.4. Uncontrolled reactivity of lithium metal anode…………………………….16
6.    Sulfur cathode compositions……………………………………………………17
7.    Sulfur cathode fabrication strategies………………………………………........18
7.1. Physical confinements……………………………………………………...18
7.1.1. Sulfur-carbonaceous materials………………………………………....19
7.1.2. Sulfur-graphene composite materials…………………………………..20
7.2. Chemical immobilization…………………………………………………...22
7.2.1. Sulfur-polyaniline composite…………………………………………..22
7.2.2. Sulfur-polypyrrole composite………………………………………….23
7.2.3. Sulfur-polythiophene composite……………………………………….23
7.2.4. Sulfurized-polyacrylonitrile composite………………………………...24
8.    Motivation and Objectives of the study…………………………………………36
8.1. Motivations…………………………………………………………………36
8.2. Objectives of the thesis……………………………………………………..37
9.    Organization of the works………………………………………………………37
Chapter 3. Experimental and Characterization Techniques……………................39
1.    Experimental section………………………………………………………........39
1.1. Chemicals and reagents………………………………………………….....39
1.2. Materials synthesis methods………………………………………………..39
1.2.1. Synthesis of sulfurized-poly(acrylonitrile) compound………………...39
1.2.2. Synthesis of S@SP@SPAN fibers…………………………………….40
1.2.3. Synthesis of STTCA@SPAN fibers…………………………………...40
2.    Morphologies and structure characterization techniques……………………….41
2.1. Scanning electron microscopy……………………………………………...41
2.2. Elemental analysis……………………………………………………….....42
2.3. Thermogravimetric analysis………………………………………………..42
2.4. X-ray powder diffraction…………………………………………………...43
2.5. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy…………………………………...43
2.6. Raman spectroscopy………………………………………………………..44
2.7. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy………………………………………….44
2.8. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy…………………………………44
3.    Cathode fabrication……………………………………………………………..46
4.    Electrochemical performance measurements…………………………………...46
4.1. Cyclic voltammetry………………………………………………………....46
4.2. Galvanostatic cycling……………………………………………………….47
4.3. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy…………………………………..48
5.    Post-mortem analysis……………………………………………………………48
Chapter 4. Mechanistic Understanding for the Cyclization Reaction and Lithium Storage of Sulfurized-Poly(acrylonitrile) Cathode for Lithium-Sulfur Batteries    49
1.    Introduction to the mechanistic investigation of SPAN …………………………49
2.    Results and discussions…………………………………………………………..50
2.1. Morphology analysis………………………………………………………...51
2.2. Structural characterizations…………………………………………………..52
2.3. Electrochemical characterizations……………………………………………63
2.3.1. Cyclic voltammetry analysis    64
2.3.2. Galvanostatic cyclic analysis    64
2.3.3. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis    66
2.4. Electrochemical reaction mechanism……………………………………….68
3.    Summary………………………………………………………………………...78
Chapter 5. Interconnected Fibrous S@SP@SPAN as Cathode for High-Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries    79
1.    Introduction to SPAN cathode modification    79
2.    Results and discussions    82
2.1. Morphology and structure characterizations………………………………...82
2.2. Electrochemical characterizations…………………………………………...88
2.2.1. Cyclic voltammetry analysis……………………………………………88
2.2.2. Galvanostatic cycling tests    90
2.2.3. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis    92
3.    Summary    96
Chapter 6. Fibrous Organosulfur Compounds as Cathode Materials for High Performance Lithium-Sulfur Batteries    97
1.    Introduction to organosulfur cathode materials    97
2.    Results and discussions    100
2.1. Morphology analysis………………………………………………………...101
2.2. Structure characterizations………………………………………………….104
2.3. Electrochemical performance analysis……………………………………..108
2.4. Post-mortem analysis……………………………………………………….113
3.    Summary    118
Chapter 7. Conclusions and Future Outlooks    119
1.    Conclusions    119
2.    Future outlooks    121
Appendices    123
A.    Standard reduction potentials    123
B.    Theoretical estimation of 13C Chem-NMR of cPAN and SPAN    123
C.    Cyclic voltagram comparison of S@SP@SPAN with SPAN cathode and rate capability of SPAN cathode    125
References    126


                                

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