本研究主要探討在網路學習環境中，個體認知風格、控制信念、焦慮對網路自我障礙策略、網路自我障礙行為與網路學習表現的影響。總計51 名大學生參與本研究。研究方法部份，主要採用問卷調查法與相關統計分析，以瞭解學生之場獨立/場依賴認知風格、控制信念、焦慮、網路自我障礙策略，以及各變項間的關係，且輔以眼動追蹤技術記錄並分析網路自我障礙行為。
本研究結果顯示，在網路學習環境中，(1)場獨立與場依賴型認知風格者對控制信念、網路自我障礙策略、網路自我障礙行為之總凝視次數與網路學習表現皆有顯著差異，而在焦慮與網路自我障礙行為之總凝視時間方面則無顯著差異。(2)控制信念對網路自我障礙策略、網路學習表現皆有顯著預測力，但對網路自我障礙行為則無預測力。(3)焦慮對網路自我障礙策略有顯著預測力，對網路自我障礙行為、網路學習表現則無預測力。(4)網路自我障礙策略與網路自我障礙行為皆對網路學習表現無顯著預測力。最後，本研究依據研究結果進行討論，並提出教師的教學與未來後續研究之相關建議。

The purpose of this study was to investigate the roles of cognitive style, locus of control and anxiety in Internet self-handicapping strategy, self-handicapping behavior and performance in the web-based learning environment. There were fifty-one university students participated in this study. Some quantitative methods were used to analyze the reliability for the questionnaires of students’ field independency/ filed dependency cognitive style, locus of control, anxiety, internet self-handicapping strategy, as well as the relationships among the investigated variables. In addition, eye-tracking was used to investigate Internet self-handicapping behavior.
The result showed that in web-based learning environment, (1) there is a significant difference in locus of control, Internet self-handicapping strategies, the total fixation number of Internet self-handicapping behavior, and academic performance between field independent and dependent individuals. However, there was no difference in their anxiety and total fixation duration of Internet self-handicapping behavior. (2) Locus of control significantly predicted Internet self-handicapping strategy and academic performance, but it did not predict their Internet self-handicapping behavior. (3) Anxiety also significantly predicted Internet self-handicapping strategy, while it could not predict Internet self-handicapping behavior and academic performance. (4) Internet self-handicapping strategy and behavior did not predict academic performance. Finally implications and suggestions for future research was provided.

一、中文部分
王逸萍 (2011)。自我效能、控制信念與焦慮對網路學習之自我障礙策略知覺、網路自我障礙行為與問題性網路使用之影響。國立臺灣科技大學數位學習與教育研究所碩士論文，未出版，臺北市。
何韋德、孫春在 (2014)。以眼動行為分析探討遊戲經驗對觀察搜尋能力的影響。國立交通大學資訊科學與工程研究所碩士論文，未出版，新竹市。
吳裕益（1987）。認知能力與認知型態個別差異現象之探討。教育學刊，7，51-98。

二、英文部分
Akça, F. (2012). An Investigation into the self-handicapping behaviors of undergraduates in terms of academic procrastination, the locus of control and academic success. Journal of Education and Learning, 1(2), 288.
Akın, A. (2011). Academic locus of control and self-handicapping. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 812-816.
Akin, A., Abaci, R., & Akin, Ü . (2011). Self-handicapping: A conceptual analysis. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(3), 1155-1168.
Allport, G. G. (1937). Personality: A Psychological Interpretation. New York: Holt.
Anderson, M. D. (2001). Individual characteristics and web-based courses. Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web, 45-72.
Aula, A., Majaranta, P., & Räihä, K. J. (2005). Eye-tracking reveals the personal styles for search result evaluation. In Human-Computer Interaction-INTERACT 2005 (pp. 1058-1061). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Azevedo, R., Moos, D. C., Greene, J. A., Winters, F. I., & Cromley, J. G. (2008). Why is externally-facilitated regulated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia? Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(1), 45-72.
Bajraktarevic, N., Hall, W., & Fullick, P. (2003). Incorporating learning styles in hypermedia environment: Empirical evaluation.
Barlow, D. H. (2000). Unraveling the mysteries of anxiety and its disorders from the perspective of emotion theory. American Psychologist, 55(11), 1247-1263.
Beasley, T. M.,Long, J. D., & Natali, M. (2001). A confirmatory factor analysis of the mathematics anxiety scale for children. Measurement & Evaluation in Counseling & Development, 34(1), 14-26.
Bender, W. N. (1995). Learning disabilities: characteristics, identification and teaching strategies. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Berglas, S., & Jones, E. E. (1978). Control of attributions about the self through self-handicapping strategies: The appeal of alcohol and the role of underachievement. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 4(2), 200-206.
Birenbaum, M. (2007). Assessment and instruction preferences and their relationship with test anxiety and learning strategies. Higher Education, 53(6), 749-768.
Boechler, P. M. (2001). How spatial is hyperspace? Interacting with hypertext documents: Cognitive processes and concepts. CyberPsychology and Behavior, 4(1), 23-46.
Brown, C. M., & Kimble, C. E. (2009). Personal, interpersonal, and situational influences on behavioral self-handicapping. The Journal of Social Psychology, 149(6), 609-626.
Cassady, J. C., & Johnson, R. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27(2), 270-295.
Calcaterra, A., Antonietti, A., & Underwood, J. (2005). Cognitive style, hypermedia navigation and learning. Computers & Education, 44(4), 441-457.
Chak, K., & Leung, L. (2004). Shyness and locus of control as predictors of Internet addiction and Internet use. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(5), 559-570.
Chang, M.-M., & Ho, C.-M. (2009). Effects of locus of control and learner-control on web-based language learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 22(3), 189–206.
Chen, S. (2002). A cognitive model for non-linear learning in hypermedia programmes. British Journal of Educational Technology, 33(4), 449-460.
Chen, S. Y., & Macredie, R. D. (2002). Cognitive styles and hypermedia navigation:Development of a learning model. Journal of the American society for information science and technology, 53(1), 3-15.
Chen, L. H., Wu, C., Kee, Y. H., Lin, M., & Shui, S. (2009). Fear of failure, 2X2 achievement goal, and self-handicapping: An examination of the hierarchical model of achievement motivation in physical education. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(4), 298–305.
Chien, K. P., Tsai, C. Y., Chen, H. L., Chang, W. H., & Chen, S. (2015). Learning differences and eye fixation patterns in virtual and physical science laboratories. Computers & Education, 82, 191-201.
Chung, J., & Monroe, G. S. (2003). Exploring social desirability bias. Journal of Business Ethics, 44(4), 291-302.
Chou, H. W. (2001). Influences of cognitive style and training method on training effectiveness. Computers & Education, 37(1), 11-25.
Cook, M., Wiebe, N. E., & Carter, G. (2008). The influence of prior knowledge on viewing and interpreting graphic with macroscopic and molecular representations. Science Education, 92(5), 848–867.
Coudevylle, G. R., Ginis, K. A. M., & Famose, J. P. (2008). Determinants of self-handicapping strategies in sport and their effects on athletic performance. Social Behavior and Personality: an international journal, 36(3), 391-398.
Covington, M. V. (1992). Making the grade: A self-worth perspective on motivation and school reform. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Covington, M. V. (2000). Goal theory, motivation, and school achievement: An integrative review. Annual Review of Psychology, 51(1), 171–200.
Cowden, P. (2010). Communication and conflict: Anxiety and learning. Research in Higher Education Journal, 9, 1-9.
Cross, R. W., & Huberty, J. J. (1993). Factor analysis of the state – trait anxiety inventory for children with a sample of seventh and eighth grade students. Journal of Psycho educational assessment, 11(3), 232-241.
Cunningham-Atkins, H., Powell, N., Moore, D., Hobbs, D., & Sharpe, S. (2004). The role of cognitive style in educational computer conferencing. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 69–80.
Cutrell, E., & Guan, Z. (2007, April). What are you looking for? An eye-tracking study of information usage in web search. In Proceedings of the SIGCHI conference on Human factors in computing systems (pp. 407-416). ACM.
Danaher, P. J., & Mullarkey, G. W. (2003). Factors affecting online advertising recall: A study of students. Journal of Advertising Research, 43(3), 252-267.
Daniels, H. L., & Moore, D. M. (2000). Interaction of cognitive style and learner control in a hypermedia environment. International Journal of Instructional Media, 27(4), 369-384.
De Brabander, B., & Declerck, C. H. (2004). A possible role of central dopamine metabolism associated with individual differences in locus of control. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(4), 735-750.
Deffenbacher, J. L. (1986). Cognitive and physiological components of test anxiety in real-life exams. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 10(6), 635-644.
de Koning, B. B., Tabbers, H.K., Rikers, R. M. J. P., & Paas, F. (2010). Attention guidance in learning from a complex animation: Seeing is understanding? Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 111-122.
DeRouin, R., Fritzsche, B. A., & Salas, E. (2005). E-learning in organizations.Journal of Management, 31(6), 920-940.
DeTure, M. (2004). Cognitive style and self-efficacy: Predicting student success in online distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 18(1),21-38.
Draffan, E. A., & Rainger, P. (2006). A model for the identification of challenges to blended learning. ALT-J, Research in Learning Technology, 14(1), 55-67.
Drennan, J., Kennedy, J., & Pisarski, A. (2005). Factors affecting student attitudes toward flexible online learning in management education. The Journal of Educational Research, 98(6), 331-338.
Dunser, A., & Jirasko, M. (2005). Interaction of hypertext forms and global versus sequential learning styles. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 32(1),79-91.
Elliot, A. J., & Church, M. A. (2003). A motivational analysis of defensive pessimism and self-handicapping. Journal of Personality, 71(3), 369–396.
Elliot, A. J., & Thrash, T. M. (2004). The intergenerational transmission of fear of failure. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30(8), 957–971.
Ford, N., & Chen, S. Y. (2001). Matching/mismatching revisited: an empirical study of learning and teaching styles. British Journal of Educational Technology, 32(1), 5-22.
Ford, N., Wilson, T. D., Foster, A., Ellis, D., & Spink, A. (2002). Information seeking and mediated searching study. Part 4: cognitive styles in information seeking. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 53(9),728-735.
Ford, N., Wood, F. & Walsh, C. (1994) Cognitive styles and online searching. Online and CD-ROM Review, 18(2), 79–86.
Gadbois, S. A., & Sturgeon, R. D. (2011). Academic self‐handicapping: Relationships with learning specific and general self‐perceptions and academic performance over time. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(2), 207-222.
Garcia, T. (1995). The role of motivational strategies in self‐regulated learning. New directions for teaching and learning, 1995(63), 29-42.
Gerrig, R. J., & Zimbardo, P. G. (2012). Psikolojiye giriş psikoloji ve yaşam. (Ç ev. G. Sart), İstanbul: Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
Ghabanchi, Z., & Golparvar, S. E. (2011). Locus of control, religious orientation, and L2 achievement. California Linguistic Notes, 36(2), 1-17.
Goldberg, H. J., & Kotval, X. P. (1999). Computer interface evaluation using eye movements: Methods and constructs. International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, 24(6), 631–645.
Gomez, R. (1997). Locus of control and type A behavior pattern as predictors of coping styles among adolescents. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(3),391-398.
Guisande, M. A., Páramo, M. F., Tinajero, C., & Almeida, L. S. (2007). Field dependence-independence (FDI) cognitive style: An analysis of attentional functioning. Psicothema, 19(4), 572-577.
Hadfield, O. D., & Maddux, C. D. (1988). Cognitive style and mathematics anxiety among high school students. Psychology in the Schools, 25(1), 75-83.
Hans, T. (2000). A meta-analysis of the effects of adventure programming on locus of control. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, 30(1), 33–60.
Harsch, D. M. (2008). The role of self-efficacy, locus of control, and self-handicapping in dissertation completion. Doctoral dissertation, University of Akron.
Havick, J. (2000). The impact of the Internet on a television-based society. Technology in Society, 22(2), 273-287.
Hembree, R. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of educational research, 58(1), 47-77.
Hendrix, K. S., & Hirt, E. R. (2009). Stressed out over possible failure: The role of regulatory fit on claimed self-handicapping. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(1), 51-59.
Hill, K. T., & Wigfield, A. (1984). Test anxiety: A major educational problem and what can be done about it. The Elementary School Journal, 85(1), 105-126.
Hirt, E. R., Deppe, R. K., & Gordon, L. J. (1991). Self-reported versus behavioral self-handicapping: Empirical evidence for a theoretical distinction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(6), 981–991.
Hirt, E. R., & McCrea, S. M. (2009). Man smart, woman smarter? Getting to the root of gender differences in self‐handicapping. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3(3), 260-274.
Ho, H. N. J., Tsai, M. J., Wang, C. Y., & Tsai, C. C. (2014). Prior knowledge and online inquiry-based science reading: Evidence from eye tracking. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 12(3), 525-554.
Hoffman, D. L., Novak, T. P., & Schlosser, A. (2003). Locus of control, web use and consumer attitudes towards internet regulations. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 22(1), 41-57.
Huang, E. Y., Lin, S. W., & Huang, T. K. (2012). What type of learning style leads to online participation in the mixed-mode e-learning environment? A study of software usage instruction. Computers & Education, 58(1), 338-349.
Huang, T. H., Yu , T. T., Yang , C. H., Tang, K. T., Chen, S. C., & Liu, Y. C. (2007). The study of cognitive-style-oriented online game learning system. Paper presented at the Frontiers in Education Conference, Milwaukee, Usa.
Hughes, R. N. (1981). Sex differences in Group Embedded Figures Test performance in relation to sex-role, state and trait anxiety. Current Psychological Research, 1(3-4), 227-234.
Hyönä, J., Lorch, R. F., Jr., & Kaakinen, J. K. (2002). Individual differences in reading to summarize expository text: evidence from eye fixation patterns. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 44–55.
Jacob, R. J., & Karn, K. S. (2003). Eye tracking in human-computer interaction and usability research: Ready to deliver the promises. Mind, 2(3), 4.
Jarodzka, H., Scheiter, K., Gerjets, P., & Van Gog, T. (2010). In the eyes of the beholder: How experts and novices interpret dynamic stimuli. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 146-154.
Joinson, A., Mckenna, K., Postmes, T., & Reips, U. (2007). The Oxford Handbook of Internet Psychology. Oxford University Press.
Joinson, A., McKenna, K., Postmes, T., & Reips, U.-D.(Eds.). (2007). The Oxford handbook of Internet psychology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press
Jones, E. (2008). Predicting performance in first-semester college basic writers: Revisiting the role of self-beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 33(2), 209-238.
Joo, Y. J., Lim, K. Y., & Kim, J. (2013). Locus of control, self-efficacy, and task value as predictors of learning outcome in an online university context. Computers & Education, 62, 149-158.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1976). Eye fixations and cognitive processes. Cognitive Psychology, 8(4), 441-480.
Just, M. A., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of reading: From eye fixations to comprehension. Psychological Review, 87(4), 329-354.
Kearns, H., Forbes, A., Gardiner, M. L., & Marshall, K. M. (2008). When a high distinction isn’t good enough: A review of perfectionism and self-handicapping. Australian Educational Researcher, 35(3), 21–36.
Kesici, S., Sahin, I., & Akturk, A. O. (2009). Analysis of cognitive learning strategies and computer attitudes, according to college students’ gender and locus of control. Computers in Human Behavior, 25(2), 529-534.
Khan, Z. A., & Zafar, S. (2010). The effects of anxiety on cognitive processing in English language learning. English Language Teaching, 3(2), 199-209.
Kinon, M. D., & Murray, C. B. (2007). A profile of the college self-handicapper. Undergraduate Research Journal, 1, 13-17.
Knoblich, G., Ohlsson, S., & Raney, G. E. (2001). An eye movement study of insight problem solving. Memory & Cognition, 29(7), 1000-1009.
Kozhevnikov, M. (2007). Cognitive styles in the context of modern psychology: toward an integrated framework of cognitive style. Psychological Bulletin, 133(3), 464-481.
Kuczka, K., & Treasure, D. C. (2005). Self-handicapping in competitive sport:Influence of the motivational climate, self-efficacy, and perceived importance. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 6(5), 539-550.
Lai, M. L., Tsai, M. J., Yang, F. Y., Hsu, C. Y., Liu, T. C., Lee, S. W. Y., Lee, M. H., Chiou, G. L., Liang, J. C., & Tsai, C. C. (2013). A review of using eye-tracking technology in exploring learning from 2000 to 2012. Educational Research Review, 10, 90-115.
Leary, M. R., & Shepperd, J. A. (1986). Behavioral self-handicaps versus self-reported handicaps: A conceptual note. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1265-1268.
Lee, J. (2007). The effects of visual metaphor and cognitive style for mental modeling in a hypermedia-based environment. Interacting with Computers, 19(5-6),614-629.
Lee, J., & Boling, E. (2008). Information conveying approaches and cognitive styles of mental modeling in a hypermedia based learning environment. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 59(4), 644-661.
Lee, M. W., Chen, S. Y., Chrysostomou, K., & Liu, X. (2009). Mining students’ behavior in web-based learning programs. Expert Systems with Applications,36(2), 3459-3464.
Lee, C. H. M., Cheng, Y. W., Rai, S., Depickere, A. (2005). What affect student cognitive style in the development of hypermedia learning system? Computers & Education, 45(1), 1-19.
Leondari, A., & Gonida, E. (2007). Predicting academic self ‐ handicapping in different age groups: The role of personal achievement goals and social goals.British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 595-611.
Liebert, R. M. & Morris, L. W. (1967). Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: A distinction and some initial data. Psychological reports, 20(3),975-978.
Liegle, J. O., & Janicki, T. N. (2006). The effect of learning styles on the navigation needs of Web-based learners. Computers in Human Behavior, 22(5), 885-898.
Lim, D., & Kim, H. (2003). Motivation and learner characteristics affecting online learning and learning application. Journal of Educational Technology Systems, 31(4), 423-439.
Lin, L. J. (2008). Individual differences in computer-mediated communication for web-based learning. Journal of Educational Media & Library Sciences, 45(4), 505-524.
Linn, M. C., & Hsi, S. (2000).Computers, teachers, peers: Science learning partners. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Litvinova, A., Balarabe, M., & Mohammed, A. I. (2015). Influence of personality traits and age on academic self-handicapping among undergraduate students of ahmadu bello university, zaria, nigeria. Psychology, 6(15), 1995.
Liu, M. C., Huang, Y. M., Kinshuk, & Wen, D. (2013). Fostering learners’ metacognitive skills of keyword reformulation in image seeking by location-based hierarchical navigation. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(2), 233-254.
Liu, X., Kurita, H., Uchiyama, M., Okawa, M., Liu, L., & Ma, D. (2000). Life events, locus of control, and behavioral problems among Chinese adolescents. Journal of clinical psychology, 56(12), 1565-1577.
Lorigo, L., Pan, B., Hembrooke, H., Joachims, T., Granka, L., & Gay, G. (2006). The influence of task and gender on search and evaluation behavior using Google. Information Processing & Management, 42(4), 1123-1131.
Lu, J., Yu, C.S., & Liu, C. (2003). Learning style, learning patterns, and learning performance in a WebCT-based MIS course. Information and Management, 40(6), 497-507.
Maatta, S., Stattin, H., & Nurmi, J. E. (2002). Achievement strategies at school: Types and correlates. Journal of Adolescence, 25(1), 31–46.
Ma, G., & Li, X. (2015). How character complexity modulates eye movement control in Chinese reading. Reading and Writing, 28(6), 747-761.
Mampadi, F., Chen, S. Y., Ghinea, G., & Chen, M. P. (2011). Design of adaptive hypermedia learning systems: A cognitive style approach. Computers & Education, 56(4), 1003-1011.
Martin, K. A., & Brawley, L. R. (2002). Self-esteem, self-efficacy, and selfhandicapping: The relationship between stable and situational forms of selfdoubt and self-handicapping in physical achievement settings. Self and Identity, 1, 337–351.
Martin, A. J., Marsh, H. W., & Debus, R. L. (2003). Self-handicapping and defensive pessimism: A model of self-protection from a longitudinal perspective. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 1-36.
Massa, L., & Mayer, R. (2006). Testing the ATI hypothesis: Should multimedia instruction accommodate verbalizer-visualizer cognitive style? Learning and Individual Differences, 16(4), 321-335.
Mason, L., Pluchino, P., Tornatora, M. C., & Ariasi, N. (2013). An eye-tracking study of learning from science text with concrete and abstract illustrations. The Journal of Experimental Education, 81(3), 356-384.
Mayer, R. E. (2010). Unique contributions of eye-tracking research to the study of learning with graphics. Learning and instruction, 20(2), 167-171.
McClun, L. A., & Merrell, K. W. (1998). Relationship of perceived parenting styles, locus of control orientation, and self ‐ concept among junior high age students. Psychology in the Schools, 35(4), 381-390.
McCrea, S. M., & Hirt, E. R. (2001). The role of ability judgments in self-handicapping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(10), 1378-1389.
McCrea, S. M., Hirt, E. R., Hendrix, K. L., Milner, B. J., & Steele, N. L. (2008). The worker scale: Developing a measure to explain gender differences in behavioral self-handicapping. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(4), 949-970.
Mearns, J. (2006). The social learning theory of Julian Rotter. In D. P. Crowne (Eds.), Personality theory. New York: Oxford University Press.
Megaw, E. D., & Richardson, J. (1979). Eye movements and industrial inspection. Applied Ergonomics, 10(3), 145-154.
Messick, S. (1976). Personality consistencies in cognition and creativity. Individuality in learning, 4, 22.
Mestre, L. (2006). Accommodating diverse learning styles in an online environment. Reference and User Services Quarterly, 46(2), 27-32.
Michinov, N., Brunot, S., Le Bohec, O., Juhel, J., & Delaval, M. (2011). Procrastination, participation, and performance in online learning environments.Computers & Education, 56(1), 243-252.
Mintzes, J., Wandersee, J. H., & Novak, J. D. (Eds.), (2000). Assessing science understanding (pp. 304–341). San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Ö quist, G., Hein, A. S., Ygge, J., & Goldstein, M. (2004). Eye movement study of reading on a mobile device using the page and RSVP text presentation formats. In Mobile Human-Computer Interaction-MobileHCI 2004 (pp. 108-119). Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
Ö zen Kutanis, R., Mesci, M., & Ö vdür, Z. (2011). The effects of locus of control on learning performance: A case of an academic organization. Journal of economic and social studies, 1(2), 113-136.
Pajares, F. (1996). Self-efficacy beliefs and mathematical problem-solving of gifted students. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 21(4), 325-344.
Paulson, E. J., & Henry, J. (2002). Does the degrees of reading power assessment reflect the reading process? An eye-movement examination. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(3), 234-244
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W. & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students’ self-regulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative research. Educational Psychologist, 37(2), 91-105.
Pithers, R. T. (2002). Cognitive learning style: A review of the field dependent-field independent approach. Journal of Vocational Education & Training, 54(1),117-132.
Pi-Shan, H. S. U. (2012). Learner characteristic based learning effort curve mode: The core mechanism on developing personalized adaptive e-learning platform. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(4), 210-220.
Prapavessis, H., Grove, J. R., Maddison, R., & Zillmann, N. (2003). Self-handicapping tendencies, coping, and anxiety responses among athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 4(4), 357–375.
Pulford, B. D., Johnson, A., & Awaida, M. (2005). A cross-cultural study of predictors of self-handicapping in university students. Personality and Individual Differences, 39(4), 727-737.
Radach, R., & Kennedy, A. (2004). Theoretical perspectives on eye movements in reading: Past controversies, current issues, and an agenda for future research. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 16(1-2), 3-26.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing: 20 years of research. Psychological bulletin, 124(3), 372.
Rayner, K., Chace, K. H., Slattery, T. J., & Ashby, J. (2006). Eye movements as reflections of comprehension process in reading. Scientific Studies of Reading,10(3), 241–255.
Rayner, S., Riding, R. (2002). Cognitive styles and learning strategies. London:David Fulton Publishers.
Riding, R. J., & Al-Hajji, J. (2000). Cognitive style and behaviour in secondary school pupils in Kuwait. Educational Research, 42(1), 29-42.
Riding, R., & Cheema, I. (1991). Cognitive styles - an overview and integration.Educational psychology, 11(3-4), 193-215.
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1), 1–28.
Ryska, T. A., Yin, Z., & Cooley, D. (1998). Effects of trait and situational self-handicapping on competitive anxiety among athletes. Current Psychology, 17(1), 48-56.
Sahranç, Ü . (2011). An investigation of the relationships between self-handicapping and depression, anxiety, and stress. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 3(2), 526-540.
Sanders, M. S., & McCormick, E. J. (1987). Human Factors in Engineering and Design. New York: McGraw Hill.
Sarason, I. G., & Sarason, B. R. (1990). Test anxiety. In H. Leitenberg (Eds.), Handbook of social and evaluative anxiety (pp. 475-496). New York: Plenum Press.
Schunk, D. H., Pintrich, P. R. & Meece, J. L. (2008). Motivation in education: theory, research, and applications (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Serin, O., Serin, N. B., & Sahin, F. S. (2009). Factors affecting the learning and studying strategies, and locus of control of the trainee teachers. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1),1127-1136.
Severino, S., Aiello, F., Cascio, M., Ficarra, L., & Messina, R. (2011). Distance education: The role of self-efficacy and locus of control in lifelong learning. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 28, 705-717.
Sharmin, S., Špakov, O., & Räihä, K. J. (2015). Dynamic text presentation in print interpreting–An eye movement study of reading behaviour. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 78, 17-30.
She, H. C., & Chen, Y. Z. (2009). The impact of multimedia effect on science learning:Evidence from eye movements. Computers & Education, 53(4), 1297-1307.
Sins, P., van Joolingen, W., Savelsbergh, E., & van Hout-Wolters, B. (2008).Motivation and performance within a collaborative computer-based modeling task: Relations between students' achievement goal orientation, self-efficacy, cognitive processing, and achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology,33, 58-77.
Smith, L. (2004). Changes in student motivation over the final year of high school. Journal of Educational Enquiry, 5(2), 64-85
Smith, J. L., Hardy, T., & Arkin, R. (2008). When practice doesn’t make perfect: Effort expenditure as an active behavioral self-handicapping strategy. Journal of Research in Personality, 43 (1), 95-98.
Spielberger, C.(1983). Manual for the state-trait anxiety inventory (STAI-Form Y). Alto Palo, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Standage, M., Treasure, D. C., Hooper, K., & Kuczka, K. (2007). Self-handicapping in school physical education: The influence of the motivational climate. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 81-99.
Sternberg, R. J., & Zhang, L. F. (2001). Perspectives on Thinking, Learning and Cognitive Styles. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stewart, M. A., & De George-Walker, L. (2014). Self-handicapping, perfectionism, locus of control and self-efficacy: A path model. Personality and Individual Differences, 66, 160-164.
Suinn, R.M. (2001). The terrible twos – Anger and anxiety. American Psychologist, 56(1), 27-36.
Tekedere, H., & Mahiroglu, A. (2014). The effect of locus of control in web based problem based learning on attitute to web based and problem based learning. Egitim ve Bilim, 39(171).
Thompson, T. (2004). Re-examining the effects of noncontingent success on self-handicapping behaviour. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(2), 239-260.
Thomas, C. R., Gadbois, S. A. (2007). Academic self-handicapping: The role of self-concept clarity and students' learning strategies. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(1), 101-119.
Thompson, T., & Richardson, A. (2001). Self‐handicapping status, claimed selfhandicaps and reduced practice effort following success and failure feedback. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1), 151-170.
Török, L., Szabó, Z. P., & Boda-Ujlaky, J. (2014). Self-esteem, self-conscious emotions, resilience, trait anxiety and their relation to self-handicapping tendencies. Review of Psychology, 21(2), 123-130.
Toussi, M. T. M., & Ghanizadeh, A. (2012). A study of EFL teachers' locus of control and selfregulation and the moderating role of self-efficacy. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 2(11), 2363-2371.
Traxler, J. (2007). Defining, discussing and evaluating mobilelearning: the moving finger writes and having writ... The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning, 8(2).
Triantafillou, E., Pomportsis, A., & Demetriadis, S. (2003). The design and the formative evaluation of an adaptive educational system based on cognitive style. Computers & Education, 41(1), 87-103.
Triantafillou, E., Pomportsis, A., Demetriadis, S., & Georgiadou, E. (2004). The value of adaptivity based on cognitive style: An empirical study. British Journal of Educational Technology, 35(1), 95-106.
Tsai, C.-C. (2000). A typology of the use of educational media, with implications for Internet-based instruction. Educational Media International, 37(3), 157-160.
Tsai, M. J., Hou, H. T., Lai, M. L., Liu, W. Y., & Yang, F. Y. (2012). Visual attention for solving multiple-choice science problem: An eye-tracking analysis. Computers & Education, 58(1), 375-385.
Tsai, M.-J., & Wang, C. Y. (2011). Cognitive style and visual attention distributions in scientific reading: Evidence from eye-tracking. Poster presented in the Scientific Language & E-Learning Conference, Pingtung, Taiwan, June 3-4, 2011.
Tuckman, B. W. (2005). Relations of academic procrastination, rationalizations, and performance in a web course with deadlines. Psychological Reports, 96(3c),1015–1021.
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: Examining Achievement Goals, Classroom Goal Structures, and Culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 251.
Urdan, T. (2004). Predictors of academic self-handicapping and achievement: Examining achievement goals, classroom goal structures, and culture. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 251–264
Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2001). Academic self-handicapping: What we know, what more there is to learn. Educational Psychology Review, 13(2), 115-138.
van Gog, T., & Scheiter, K. (2010). Eye tracking as a tool to study and enhance multimedia learning. Learning and Instruction, 20(2), 95–99.
Vermetten, Y. J., Lodewijks, H. G., & Vermunt, J. D. (2001). The role of personality traits and goal orientations in strategy use. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 26(2), 149–170.
Vuorela, M., & Nummenmaa, L. (2004). Experienced emotions, emotion regulation and student activity in a web-based learning environment. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 16(4), 423-436.
Wang, D. (2005). Students’ learning and locus of control in web-supplemental instruction. Innovative Higher Education, 30(1), 67-82.
Wang, P., Hawk, W.B., & Tenopir, C. (2000). Users’ interaction with World Wide Web resources: An exploratory study using a holistic approach. Information Processing & Management, 36(2), 229–251.
Warner, S., & Moore, S. (2004). Excuses, excuses: Self-handicapping in an Australian adolescent sample. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(4), 271-281.
Weinreich, H., Obendorf, H., Herder, E., & Mayer, M. (2008). Not quite the average: An empirical study of Web use. ACM Transactions on the Web (TWEB), 2(1), 5.
Weissbein, D. A., Huang, J. L., Ford, J. K., & Schmidt, A. M. (2011). Influencing learning states to enhance trainee motivation and improve training transfer. Journal of Business and Psychology, 26(4), 423-435.
Westerback, M. E. & Long, M. J. (1990). Science knowledge and the reduction of anxiety about teaching earth science in exemplary teachers as measured by the science teaching state - trait anxiety inventory. School Science and Mathematics,
90(5), 361-374.
White, K. S., & Farrell, A. D. (2001). Structure of anxiety symptoms in urban children: Competing factor models of Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(2), 333.
Wiley, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2001). The mental web: Pedagogical and cognitive implications of the net. Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web, 243-257.
Willems, J. (2011). Using learning styles data to inform e-learning design: A study comparing undergraduates, postgraduates and e-educators. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 27(6), 863-880.
Witkin, H. A. (1962). Psychological differention; Studies of development. New York:Wiley.
Witkin, H. A. (1971). Group embedded figures test. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Witkin, H. A. (1976). Cognitive style in academic performance and in teacherstudent relations. In S.Messick & Associates: Individulity in learning. San Francisco: Jossey-bass Publishers.
Witkin, H.A. & Goodenough, D.R.(1977). Field-dependence and interpersonal behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 661-689
Witkin, H. A., Moore, C. A., Goodenough, D. R., & Cox, P. W. (1977). Field dependent and field independent cognitive styles and their educational implications. Review of Educational Research, 47, 1–64.
Wolfe, B. E. (2005). Understanding and treating anxiety disorders: An integrative approach to healing the wounded self. American Psychological Association.
Wolfe, C. R. (2001). Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web. London:
Academic Press.
Yang, F. Y., Chang, C. Y., Chien, W. R., Chien, Y. T., & Tseng, Y. H. (2013). Tracking learners' visual attention during a multimedia presentation in a real classroom. Computers & Education, 62, 208-220.
Yang, F. Y., & Tsai, C. C. (2008). Investigating university student preferences and beliefs about learning in the web-based context. Computers & Education, 50(4),1284-1303.
Yesilyaprak, B. (2004). Locus of control. Individual differences in education. Ankara: Nobel Publications.
You, J. W. (2015). Examining the effect of academic procrastination on achievement using lms data in e-learning. Educational Technology & Society, 18(3), 64-74.
Yukselturk, E., & Bulut, S. (2007). Predictors for student success in an online course.Educational Technology and Society, 10(2), 71-83.
Zeidner, M. (1998). Test anxiety: The state of the art. New York: Plenum.
Zuckerman, M., & Tsai, F. F. (2005). Costs of self ‐ handicapping. Journal of Personality, 73(2), 411-442.