簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

回結果列表
研究生： 張文德
Wen-Te Chang
論文名稱： 尋路導航輔助設計之比較與應用
The Comparison and Application of Navigational Support Design in Wayfinding
指導教授： 陳建雄
Chien-Hsiung Chen
口試委員: 張文智
Wen-Chih Chang
陳玲鈴
Lin-Lin Chen
陳國祥
Kuo-Hsiang CHEN
何明泉
Ming-Chyuan Ho
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 設計學院 - 設計系
Department of Design
論文出版年： 2009
畢業學年度： 97
語文別： 中文
論文頁數： 113
中文關鍵詞： 尋路 、虛擬實境 、心智地圖 、導航輔助 、任務難度
外文關鍵詞： Cognitive Map, Navigational Support, Virtual Reality, Wayfinding, Task Difficulty
相關次數： 點閱：617  下載：22 
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報

    • 在面對全然陌生的虛擬環境尋路任務時，如何藉由輔助設計提昇使用者尋路績效是發展虛擬環境相關技術的重要議題。本研究目的在藉由觀察實際操作經驗，了解受試者在不同尋路導航輔助設計與任務難度下的尋路績效與策略，並進一步提出相關建議與未來研究方向。
    本研究共分二階段進行。首先為工具建構階段，主要在發展適當之尋路績效量測工具；其次為實驗觀察階段主要在探討導航輔助對使用者尋路行為的影響。第一階段研究結果：(1) 「尋路績效自我評鑑量表」經信效度與鑑別力檢驗，確為一可用於評量尋路能力之研究工具；(2) 為了更深入性別因素相關性探索，後續研究將針對尋路策略與性別差異的相關性進行量表的修正。
    第二階段是以第一段階段工具為基礎，對導航輔助方式(指標或地圖)、性別、任務難度(2D或3D)與尋路策略(路徑/相對或俯瞰/絕對)相關性進行探索。實驗結果發現：(1) 在虛擬實境設定下任務難度會影響尋路績效，且2D尋路任務明顯地會比3D尋路任務所需時間短；(2) 指標式明顯地比地圖式導航輔助有效，且男性明顯地比女性具有較佳的尋路能力，另導航方式與性別因子間交互作用達顯著水準，但適當的導航輔助將有效地提升女性尋路績效，並使性別差異消除; (3) 女性的尋路所需時間與路徑和俯瞰兩種策略問卷得分負相關皆達顯著水準，其中又以路徑策略得分相關性較高，可見女性具有較高的路徑尋路策略傾向；(4) 男性尋路所需時間僅和俯瞰尋路策略問卷得分的負相關達顯著水準，證實男性為俯瞰尋路策略傾向者。

    For the people who confronted with the unfamiliar 3D virtual reaity (VR) space or wayfinding task, the issue related to how navigational support colud provide assistant information to improve people’s wayfinding performace is crucial. The purpose of this study is to investigate correlation among VR navigational support, task difficulity, wayfinding strategy, and individual difference.
    The study was consisted of two main stages. The first stage, ‘Tools constrcution’, focuses on the development of the experimental tools for wayfinding test. The second part, ‘Experiment and observation’, focuses on the observation of the effect between the navigational support and the wayfinding performance.
    The experimental results and statistical analysis on the first research part indicated that：1. ‘Self evaluation scale on wayfinding performance’ was developed, tested, and verified to be practical on wayfinding capacity evaluation; 2. The correlation between ‘Self evaluation scale on wayfinding performance’ and gender difference was not statistically significant, the evaluation scale would need to be redeveloped regarding the wayfinding strategy and gender factors.
    Based on the findings of the first stage, how VR navigational support can influence human navigational performance was tested on the second research stage. The experimental results and statistical analysis indicated that: 1. In the VR scene, navigation time for the terrestrial/2D task type was significantly shorter than for the weightless/3D task type; 2. The guide sign support was significantly more effective than map support. Moreover, the interactions between support style and gender difference indicated that males exhibit better wayfinding performance than females, but that appropriate support can improve navigational performance and eliminate gender differences; 3. The Way-Finding Strategy Scale result showed that the females were more likely to adopt the route/ egocentric wayfinding strategy; 4. Males were more likely to adopt the survey/ allocentric wayfinding strategy, and that their scores were negatively correlated with navigation time.

    總目錄 中文摘要 i 英文摘要 ii 誌謝 iv 總目錄 v 表目錄 ix 圖目錄 x 附錄目錄 xii 第一章 緒論 1 1.1 研究動機 1 1.2 研究範圍與限制 2 1.2.1研究範圍 2 1.2.2研究限制 4 1.3 研究藍圖與章節概要 4 1.3.1 論文章節 4 1.3.2 研究架構 5 1.4 研究目的 7 第二章 文獻探討 8 2.1 虛擬實境之尋路相關學理 8 2.1.1虛擬實境的尋路任務 8 2.1.2 尋路之研究方法 9 (1) 地圖繪製 10 (2) 目標發現任務 10 (3) 距離量測 11 (4) 路徑自我表述 11 (5) 策略自述問卷 11 (6) 定位能力自我量表 12 (7) 綜合任務 12 2.1.3 影響尋路績效的因素 13 (1) 個人因素 14 (2) 環境因素 15 (3) 交互影響 16 2.1.4 尋路之心智歷程 20 (1) 認知階段 20 (2) 處理階段 21 (3) 修正階段 21 2.2尋路與導航理論 22 2.2.1 心智地圖 22 2.2.2 視覺空間工作記憶 23 2.2.3 空間記憶與尋路策略的交互影響 27 2.2.4 尋路之導航輔助原理 29 2.3 導航輔助研究 30 2.3.1 導航輔助發展現況 30 (1) 地圖輔助 31 (2) 路徑輔助 31 (3) 複合方式 32 2.3.2導航輔助研究現況 32 (1) 地圖輔助類 33 (2) 技術應用類 34 (3) 理論整合類 35 2.3.3 導航輔助相關議題 35 (1) 地圖輔助的強化 35 (2) 導航輔助模式比較 37 (3) 高頻率尋路路徑 38 (4) 全球衛星定位系統介面開發與測試 38 (5) 3D失重位移情境 38 (6) 可用性評量 39 (7) 拓蹼理論 40 (8) 性別差異 41 2.4 小結 41 第三章 尋路場景與自我評鑑量表開發 43 3.1研究議題 43 3.1.1 個體差異與尋路績效 43 3.1.2 尋路績效量測工具 44 3.1.3 研究假設 44 3.2 第一階段研究設計 45 3.2.1 受試者 45 3.2.2 實驗流程 45 3.2.3 資料分析 46 3.2.4 實驗限制 46 3.3 研究工具 46 3.3.1 方向感量表 46 3.3.2 心智地圖試題 48 3.3.3 設備與場地 49 3.4結果分析 51 3.4.1 量表效度分析 51 3.4.2 量表信度分析 53 3.4.3 量表鑑別力分析 54 3.4.4先前經驗因素 55 3.5 討論 57 3.5.1 尋路績效與自我評量 57 3.5.2 先前3D電玩經驗因素 58 3.5.3 尋路績效與性別因素 58 3.6 小結 59 第四章 尋路輔助研究 62 4.1 研究議題 62 4.1.1 性別差異與尋路策略 62 4.1.2 導航輔助與任務難度 63 4.1.3 尋路輔助研究假設 64 4.2 第二階段研究設計 65 4.2.1 受試者 65 4.2.2 實驗流程 65 4.2.3 資料分析 66 4.2.4 實驗限制 67 4.3研究工具 68 4.3.1 導航輔助 68 4.3.2 任務難度 70 4.3.3 尋路策略 71 4.3.4 設備與場地 73 4.4 結果分析 75 4.4.1 整體結果 75 4.4.2 相關分析 77 4.4.3 迴歸分析 78 4.5 討論 79 4.5.1 任務難度與性別差異 79 4.5.2 性別差異與尋路績效 80 4.5.3 變項間的相關性 81 4.6 小結 82 第五章 結論與建議 85 5.1 研究結論 85 5.1.1 性別差異、尋路績效與尋路策略的相關性 85 5.1.2 不同導航輔助在3D虛擬場景的效果 85 5.2未來研究建議 86 5.2.1 不同虛擬實境互動遊戲設計的比較 86 5.2.2 不同虛擬實境互動控制介面的研發與測試 88 5.2.3 導航輔助介面可用性主觀量表之開發 90 5.2.4 尋路理論在設計實務的應用研究 91 參考文獻 93 英文文獻 93 中文文獻 101 網路引用資訊 102 附錄 103 作者簡介 111

    參考文獻
    英文文獻
    1. Annett, M. (1992). Spatial ability in subgroups of left- and right-handers. British Journal of Psychology, 83(4), 493-515.
    2. Arthur, P., & Passini, R. (1992). Wayfinding, people, sign and architecture. Cambridge, MA: McGraw-Hill.
    3. Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
    4. Bailey, J. H. (1994). Spatial knowledge acquisition in a virtual environments. Doctoral dissertation, University of Central Florida.
    5. Beaumont, P. B., Gray, J., Moore, G. T., & Robinson, B. (1894). Orientation and wayfinding in the Tauranga departmental building: a focused post-occupancy evaluation. Environmental Design Research Association Proceedings, 15, 77–91.
    6. Bethell-Fox, C. E., & Shepard, N. E. (1988). Mental rotation: Effects of stimulus complexity and familiarity. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 14, 12-23.
    7. Bosco, A., Longoni, A. M., & Vecchi, T. (2004). Gender effects in spatial orientation: Cognitive profiles and mental strategies. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 18, 519-532.
    8. Brooke, J. (1996). SUS: A ‘quick and dirty’ usability scale. In Jordan, P. W., Thomas, B., Weerdmeester, B. A., & McClell, I. L. (Eds.), Usability evaluation in industry (pp. 189-194). London: Taylor & Francis.
    9. Brown, L. N., Lahar, C. J., & Mosley, J. L. (1998). Age and gender related differences in strategy use for route information- A map present direction giving paradigm. Environment and Behavior, 30(2), 123-143.
    10. Brown, W. (1932). Spatial integrations in a human maze. University of California Publications in Psychology, 5, 123-134.
    11. Bryant, K. J. (1982). Personality correlates of sense of direction and geographical orientation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43(6), 1318-1324.
    12. Butler, D. L., Acquino, A. L., Hissong, A. A., & Scott, P. A. (1993). Wayfinding by newcomers in a complex building. Human Factors, 35(1), 159-173.
    13. Casey, M. B. (1996). Gender, sex, and cognition: considering interrelationship between biological and environmental factors. Learning and Individual Differences, 8, 39-53.
    14. Chase, W. G., & Chi, M. T. H. (1985). Cognitive skill: Implications in large-scale environments. Hillsdale, NJ, Erlbaum Assoc.
    15. Chen, J., & Stanney, K. (1999). A theoretical model of wayfinding in virtual environmentss: proposed strategies for navigational aiding. Presence, 8(6), 671-685.
    16. Coluccia, E., & Iosue, G. (2004). Gender differences in spatial orientation: A review. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 24(3), 329-340.
    17. Coluccia, E., Bosco, A., & Brandimonte, M. A. (2007). The role of visuo-spatial working memory in map drawing. Psychological Research, 71, 359-372.
    18. Coluccia, E., Iosue G., & Brandimonte M. A. (2007). The relationship between map drawing and spatial orientation abilities: A study of gender differences. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 27, 135-244.
    19. Cooper, L. A. (1976). Individual differences in visual comparison processes. Perception and Psychophysics, 19, 433-444.
    20. Cornoldi, C., & Vecchi, T. (2003). Visuo-spatial working memory and individual differences. Hove, UK: Psychology Press.
    21. Creem-Regehr, S. H., Willemsen, P., Gooch, A. A., & Thompson, W. B. (2005). The influence of restricted viewing conditions on egocentric distance perception: Implications for real and virtual environments. Perception, 34, 191–204.
    22. Czerwinski, M., Tan, D. S., & Robertson, G. G. (2002). Women take a wider view. In Proceedings of CHI 2002, Human Factors in Computing Systems (pp. 195-202) ACM press.
    23. Dabbs, J. M., Chang, E. L., & Strong, R. A. (1998). Spatial ability, navigation strategy and geographic knowledge among the male and the female. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 89-98.
    24. Darken, R. P., & Sibert, J. L. (1996a). Wayfinding strategies and behaviors in large virtual worlds (pp. 142-149). Appears in the Proceedings of ACM CHI96.
    25. Darken, R. P., & Sibert, J. L. (1996b). Navigating large virtual spaces. The International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 8(1), 49-72.
    26. Darken, R. P., & Banker, W. P. (1998). Navigating in natural environmentss: A virtual environments training transfer study. Proceedings of VRAIS, 12-19.
    27. Darken, R. P., & Peterson, B. (2002). Spatial orientation, wayfinding and representation. In K. Stanney, (Eds.), Handbook of virtual environmentss: Design, implethe maletation and applications. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
    28. Devlin, A. S., & Bernstein, J. (1995). Interactive wayfinding: Use of cues by men and women. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 23-38.
    29. Downs, R. (1979). Mazes, mind and maps. New Providence, NJ: R. R. Bowker.
    30. Downs, R. M., & Stea, D. (1973). Cognitive maps and spatial behavior: Process and products. In R. Downs & D. Stea (Eds.), Image and environment (pp. 8-26) Aldine Publications.
    31. Eaton, G. (1992). Wayfinding in a library: Book searches and route uncertainty. RQ, 30(4), 523-525.
    32. Evans, G. W. (1980). Environmental cognition. Psychological Bulletin, 88, 259-287.
    33. Evans, G. W., & Pezdel, K. (1980). Cognitive mapping: Knowledge of real- world and location information. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 6, 13-24
    34. Galea, L. A. M., & Kimura, D. (1993). Sex differences in route learning. Personality and Individual Differences, 14(1), 53-65.
    35. Garden, S., Cornoldi, C., & Logie, R. H. (2002). Visuo-spatial working memory in navigation. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 16(1), 35-50.
    36. Gleitman, H. (1995). Psychology (4th. ed.), NewYork: W.W. Norton and Co.
    37. Goldstein, E. B. (1994). Psychology. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.
    38. Golledge, R. G. (1987). Environmental cognition. In D. Stokols and I. Altman, (Eds.), Handbook of environmental psychology (pp. 131-174), New York: Wiley.
    39. Gramann, K., Muller, H. J., Eick, E. M., & Schonebeck, B. (2005). Evidence of separable spatial representations in a virtual navigation task. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 31(6), 1199-1223.
    40. Hart, R. A., & Moore, G. T. (1973). The developthe malet of spatial cognition: a review. In R. M. Downs and D. Stea, (Eds.), Image and environments (pp. 246-288). Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company.
    41. Hart, S., & Stavel, L. (1988). Development of NASA TLX (Task Load Index): results of empirical and theoretical research. In P. Hancock, & N. Meshkati (Eds.), Human mental workload (pp.139-83). New York: North-Holl.
    42. Hart, S. G., & Wickens, C. (1990). Work load assessment and prediction. In Booher, Eds., Manprint, an approach to systems integration (pp. 257-296). New York: Van Nostr and Reinhold.
    43. Ingwerron, P. (1982). Research procedures in the library: Analyzed from the cognitive point of view. Journal of Documentation, 38(3), 165-191.
    44. Jahns D. W. (1973). A concept of operator workload in manual vehicle operation. Meckingheim, West Germany: Forschungsinstitut Antropotechnik.
    45. Janzen, G., Schade, M., & Herrmann, T. (2001). Strategies for detour finding in a virtual maze: The role of the visual perspective. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 149-163.
    46. Kaiser, H. (1974). An index of factor simplicity. Psychometrika, 39, 31-36.
    47. Kato, Y., & Takeuchi, Y. (2003). Individual differences in wayfinding strategies. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 23(2), 171-188.
    48. Kim, J. (1999). An empirical study of navigation aids in customer interfaces. Behaviour and Information Technology, 18, 213-224.
    49. Kitchin, R. M. (1997). Exploring spatial thought. Environments and Behavior, 29, 123-156.
    50. Klatzky, R. L. (1998). Allocentric and egocentric spatial representations: Definitions, distinctions, and interconnections. In C. Freksa, C. Habel, & K. F. Wender (Eds.), Spatial cognition I (pp. 1-18). New York: Springer.
    51. Kozlowski, L. T., & Bryant, K. J. (1977). Sense of direction, spatial orientation, and cognitive maps. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 3, 590-598.
    52. Kyllonen, P. C., Lohman, D. F., & Woltz, D. J. (1984). Componential modeling of alternative strategies for performing spatial tasks. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 1325-1345.
    53. Lang, A., Geiger, S., Strickwerda, M., & Sumner, J. (1993). The effects of related and unrelated cuts on television viewers' attention, processing capacity, and memory. Communication Research, 20(1), 4-29.
    54. Lang, A., Schwartz, N., Chung, Y., & Lee, S. (2004). Procssing substance abusemessages: Production pacing, arousing content, and age. Journal of broadcasting and electronic media, 48(1), 61-88.
    55. Lawton, C. A. (1994). Gender differences in way-finding strategies: Relationship to spatial ability and spatial anxiety. Sex Roles, 30, 765-779.
    56. Lawton, C. A. (1996). Strategies for indoor way-finding: the role of orientation. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16, 137-145.
    57. Lawton, C. A., & Morrin, K. A. (1999). Gender differences in pointing accuracy in computer simulated 3D mazes. Sex Roles, 40(1/2), 73-92.
    58. Lawton, C. A., Charleston, S. I., & Zieles, A. S. (1996). Individual and gender-related differences in indoor wayfinding. Environment and Behavior, 28, 204-219.
    59. Levine, M. (1982). You-are-here maps: Psychological considerations. Environments and Behavior, 14, 221-237.
    60. Levine, M., Jankovic, I., & Palij, M. (1982). Principles of spatial problem solving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 111, 157-175.
    61. Levine, M., Marchon, I., & Hanley, G. (1984). The placethe malet and misplacethe malet of you-are-here maps. Environments and Behavior, 16, 139-157.
    62. Lin, D. Y. M. (2004). Evaluating older adults’ retention in hypertext perusal: impacts of presentation media as a function of text topology. Computers in Human Behavior, 20, 491-503.
    63. Logie, R. H. (1995). Visuo-spatial working memory. Hove, UK: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
    64. Loring-Meier, S., & Halpern, D. F. (1999). Sex differences in visuospatial working memory: Components of cognitive processing. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 6(3), 464-471.
    65. Lynch, K. (1960). The image of the city. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
    66. Malinowski, J. C., & Gillespie, W. T. (2001). Individual differences in performance on a large scale, real word wayfinding task. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 21, 73-82.
    67. McDonald, S. & Stevenson, R. J. (1998). Effects of text structures and prior knowledge of the learner on navigation in hypertext. Human Factors, 40, 18-27.
    68. Miller, L. K., & Santoni, V. (1986). Sex differences in spatial abilities: strategic and experimental correlates. Acta Psychologica, 62, 225-235.
    69. Moffat, S. D., Hampson, E., & Hatzipantelis, M. (1998). Navigation in a virtual maze: Sex differences and correlation with psychometric measures of spatial ability in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 19, 73-87.
    70. Mollerup, P. (2005). Wayshowing: A guide to environmental signage principles & practices. Baden: Lars Müller Publishers
    71. Nielsen, J. (1990). Big paybacks from ‘discount’ usability engineering. IEEE Software, 7(3), 107-108.
    72. Nielsen, J. (1995). Usability inspection methods. CHI’ 95 Mosaic of creativity (pp. 377-378). Denver, Colorado, USA.
    73. Nielsen, J. (2003). Usability 101: Introduction to usability, http://www.useit.com/alertbox/20030825.html, retrieved: May20, 2007.
    74. Norman D. A. (2003). Emotional design: Why we love (or hate) everyday things, New York: Basic Books.
    75. Norman, D. A. (1988). The psychology of everyday things. NewYork: Basic books
    76. O’Laughlin, E. M., & Brubaker, B. S. (1998). Use of landmarks in cognitive mapping: gender differences in self report versus performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 24(5), 595-601.
    77. O'Neill, M. J. (1991). Effects of signage and floor plan configuration on wayfinding accuracy. Environment and Behavior, 23(5), 553-574.
    78. Passini, R. (1980). Wayfinding in a complex environmental analysis. Man–Environment Systems, 10, 31–40.
    79. Passini, R. (1992). Wayfinding in architecture, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
    80. Passini, R. (1995). Spatial representations: A wayfinding perspective, In D. Canter, (Eds.), Reading in environmental psychology (pp. 129-139). London: Academic Press.
    81. Paternoster, R.H., & Bousse, L.J., & Steenhaut, O.L. (1979). A colour display unit for a 21-channel EEG-monitor, ACM, Proceedings of the 6th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques, (pp. 210-217).
    82. Redish, J. (2005). Six steps to ensure a successful usability test, http://www.uie.com/articles/successful_usability_test/, retrieved: Jan 18, 2005.
    83. Rossano, M. J., & Moak, J. (1998). Spatial representations acquired from computer models: Cognitive load, orientation specificity and the acquisition of survey knowledge. British Journal of Psychology, 89, 481-497.
    84. Ruddle, R. A., & Lessels, S. (2006). Three levels of metric for evaluating wayfinding. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15, 637-654.
    85. Ruddle, R. A., Payne, S. J., & Jones, D. M. (1998). Navigating large scale "desktop" virtual buildings: Effects of orientation aids and familiarity. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7, 179-192.
    86. Ruddle, R. A., Payne, S. J., & Jones, D. M. (1999). The effects of maps on navigation and search strategies in very-large-scale virtual environments. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 5, 54-75.
    87. Russell, J. A., & Ward, L. M. (1982). Environmental psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 33, 651-688.
    88. Sadeghian, P., Kantardzic, M., Lozitskiy, O., & Sheta, W. (2006). The frequent wayfinding-sequence fws; methodology: Finding preferred routes in completing. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 64(4), 356-374.
    89. Sandstrom, N. J., Kaufman, J., & Huettel, S. A. (1998). Males and females use different distal cues in a virtual environment navigation task. Cognitive Brain Research, 6, 351-360.
    90. Saucier, D. M., Green, S. M., Leason, J., MacFadden, A., Bell, S., & Elias, L. J. (2002). Are sex differences in navigation caused by sexually dimorphic strategies or by differences in the ability to use the strategies? Behavioral Neuroscience, 116(3), 403-410.
    91. Scali, R. M., Brownlow, S., & Hicks, J. L. (2000). Gender differences in spatial task performance as a function of speed or accuracy orientation. Sex Roles, 45, 359-376.
    92. Schiff, W., & Oldak, R. (1990). Accuracy of judging time to arrival: Effects of modality, trajectory and gender. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 303-316.
    93. Schmitz, S. (1997). Gender related strategies in environmental development: Effect of anxiety on wayfinding in and representation of a three-dimensional maze. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 215-228.
    94. Sherman, J. (1978). Sex-related cognitive differences. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
    95. Shin, C. E., Schallert, D. L., & Savenye, W. C. (1994). Effects of learner control, advisement, and prior knowledge on young students’ learning in a hypertext environment. Educational Technology Research and Development, 42, 33-46.
    96. Siegel, A. W., & White, S. H. (1975). The developthe malet of spatial representations of large-scale environmentss. In H. W. Reese, (Eds.), Advances in child developthe malet, 10, (pp. 37-55). New York: Academic Press.
    97. Silverman, I., & Eals, M. (1992). Sex differences in spatial abilities: Evolutionary theory and data. In Barkow, H., Cosmides, I., and Tooby, J.(Eds.), The adapted mind. New York: Oxford ed.
    98. Smith, G. A., & McPhee, K. A. (1987). Performance on a coincidence timing task correlates with intelligence. Intelligence, 11, 161-167.
    99. Stanton, N. (Ed) (1998). Human Factors in Consumer Products, Lodon: Taylor and Francies.
    100. Surdick. R. T., Davis. F. T, King, R. A., & Hodges, L. F. (1997). The perception of distance in simulated visual displays: A comparison of the effectiveness and accuracy of multipic depth cues across viewing distances. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 6(5), 513-531.
    101. Van Goozen, S. H. M., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Gooren, L. J. G., & Frijda, N. H. (1995). Gender differences in behaviour: activating effects of cross-sex hormones. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 20(4), 343-363.
    102. Vecchi, T., & Girelli, L. (1998). Gender differences in visuo-spatial processing:the importance of distinguishing between passive storage and active manipulation. Acta Psychologica, 99(1), 1-16.
    103. Vidal, M., & Berthoz, A. (2005). Navigating in a virtual 3D maze: body and gravity, two possible reference frames for perceiving and memorizing. Spatial Cognition and Computation, 5(2&3), 139–161.
    104. Vidal, M., Amorim, M. A., & Berthoz, A. (2004). Navigating in a virtual three-dimensional maze: how do egocentric and allocentric reference frames interact? Cognitive Brain Research, 19, 244–258.
    105. Vigil, P. J. (1988). Online retrieval: Analysis and strategy. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
    106. Waller, D., Knapp, D., & Hunt, E. (2001). Spatial representations of virtual mazes: The role of visual fidelity and individual differences. Human Factor, 43(1), 147-158.
    107. Ward, S. L., Newcombe, N., & Overton, W. F. (1986). Turn left at the church, or three miles north: A study of direction giving and sex differences. Environment and Behavior, 18(2), 192-213.
    108. Wickens, C.D., Lee, J., Liu, Y., & Becker, S.G. (2004). An Introduction to human factors engineering, London: Pearson Education.
    109. Witmer. B. G., Bailey, J. H., Knerr, B. W., & Parsons, K. C. (1996). Virtual spaces and real world places: Transfer of route knowledge. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 45, 413-428.
    110. Yoshida, H., Iramina, H., & Ueno, S. (1994). Source modeling of MEG and EEG activities evoked by color imagination, IEEE Xplore, 1, 169-170.

    中文文獻
    王年燦、陳佳欣，(2004)，虛擬環境中跟隨鏡頭與尋路績效之關係研究，藝術學報, 75, 55-70.
    胡為君 (譯)，(2003)(by Rollings, A., & Adams, E.)，大師談遊戲設計，台北市:上奇科技出版事業處.
    張文德、陳建雄，(2005)，馬赫方格色覺錯視的EEG觀察研究，銘傳學刊, 14, 37-56.
    陳俊文、游萬來、及邱上嘉，(2003)，探路研究的方法及應用，設計研究, 07, 222-234.
    陳格理，(1999)，圖書館尋路工作之理念與設計，中國圖書館學會會報, 62, 119-134.

    網路引用資訊
    Apple Inc., (2008). I-phone, Source: http://www.apple.com/iphone/, retrieved: March 2008.
    皮托科技，行動式眼球追蹤儀，Source:http://www.pitotech.com.tw/c/1-product37.htm, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    任天堂-1，海底探險遊戲，Source: http://www.nintendo.co.jp/wii/rfbj/index.html, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    任天堂-2，Wii控製搖桿，Source: http://game.21cn.com/console/wii/sp/2006/11/15/3033776_1.shtml, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    任天堂-3，Wii控製搖桿操作情境，Source: http://game.21cn.com/console/wii/sp/2006/11/15/3033776_1.shtml, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    微軟-1，Xbox 360控製搖桿，Source:http://forum.shareget.com/t265001/, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    新力-1，海底世界—隱密紀錄，Source: http://acg.gamer.com.tw/acgDetail.php?s=13286, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    新力-2，PS3控製搖桿，Source: http://www.logitech.com/index.cfm/gaming/&cl=tw,zh, retrieved: Sept., 2008.
    新力-3，新一代PS3控製搖桿可能提案，http://share3c.spaces.live.com/blog/cns!6D699C896458EA78!560.entry, retrieved: Sept., 2008.

    QR CODE