研究生: |
阿格西 Agus - Setyo Muntohar |
---|---|
論文名稱: |
以入滲和無限邊坡整合模式預測降雨引致之山區道路邊坡破壞 AN INTEGRATED INFILTRATION AND SLOPE STABILITY MODEL FOR PREDICTING RAINFALL INDUCED LANDSLIDES ALONG A MOUNTAIN ROAD IN TAIWAN |
指導教授: |
廖洪鈞
Hung-Jiun Liao |
口試委員: |
林美聆
Mei-Ling Lin 卿建業 Jianye-Ching 李維峰 Wei-Fung Lee 林宏達 Horn-Dan lin 冀樹勇 Chi-Shu Yong 蔡光榮 Tsai-Kuang Zhong |
學位類別: |
博士 Doctor |
系所名稱: |
工程學院 - 營建工程系 Department of Civil and Construction Engineering |
論文出版年: | 2008 |
畢業學年度: | 96 |
語文別: | 英文 |
論文頁數: | 121 |
中文關鍵詞: | 無限邊坡 、滑坡 、機率 、破壞時間 、1、 logistic 迴歸分析 、門檻降雨量 、Green-Ampt 模式 |
外文關鍵詞: | Green-Ampt, infinite slope, landslides, probability, time of failure, threshold rainfall, logistic regression. |
相關次數: | 點閱:298 下載:16 |
分享至: |
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報 |
The Green-Ampt infiltration model and infinite slope stability model are adopted here to estimate the reoccurrence time of road side slope failure during typhoon in Taiwan. The proposed model is verified with the results obtained from landslides cases in literatures. The ability of proposed model to estimate the initiation time of failure has been verified with deterministic analysis for Tuscany (Italy) and Tung Chung East (Hong Kong) cases, and probabilistic analysis for Boso Peninsula (Japan) and Tungmen (Taiwan) landslides cases. In general, the proposed model is acceptable to be applied for estimating the time of failure and depth of sliding surface of a slope.
By coupling with the probabilistic analysis, a probability-threshold rainfall model to predict the occurrence time of landslides during typhoon is proposed here in terms of hourly rainfall intensity and accumulated rainfall. By using the rainfall records, the failure probability of slope can be calculated from the model. If the failure probability is greater than 0.5, slope is very likely to fail. Otherwise, slope is unlikely to fail. To verify the suitability of the proposed model, some landslide cases reported in the literature are selected and modeled. In general, the results are satisfactory and the applicability of the proposed model as an 'early-warning system' for typhoon induced roadside slope failure is promising. However, since the database used in this model is mainly based on the information gathered from failed roadside slopes, so it is suggested that the model proposed here is only used to predict the occurrence time of reactivated landslides in the area with previous landslide records.
The Green-Ampt infiltration model and infinite slope stability model are adopted here to estimate the reoccurrence time of road side slope failure during typhoon in Taiwan. The proposed model is verified with the results obtained from landslides cases in literatures. The ability of proposed model to estimate the initiation time of failure has been verified with deterministic analysis for Tuscany (Italy) and Tung Chung East (Hong Kong) cases, and probabilistic analysis for Boso Peninsula (Japan) and Tungmen (Taiwan) landslides cases. In general, the proposed model is acceptable to be applied for estimating the time of failure and depth of sliding surface of a slope.
By coupling with the probabilistic analysis, a probability-threshold rainfall model to predict the occurrence time of landslides during typhoon is proposed here in terms of hourly rainfall intensity and accumulated rainfall. By using the rainfall records, the failure probability of slope can be calculated from the model. If the failure probability is greater than 0.5, slope is very likely to fail. Otherwise, slope is unlikely to fail. To verify the suitability of the proposed model, some landslide cases reported in the literature are selected and modeled. In general, the results are satisfactory and the applicability of the proposed model as an 'early-warning system' for typhoon induced roadside slope failure is promising. However, since the database used in this model is mainly based on the information gathered from failed roadside slopes, so it is suggested that the model proposed here is only used to predict the occurrence time of reactivated landslides in the area with previous landslide records.
Aleotti P., 2004, A warning system for rainfall-induced shallow failures. Engineering Geology, Vol. 73: 247-265.
Alonso E.E., 1976, Risk analysis of slopes and its application to slopes in Canadian sensitive clays. Geotechnique, Vol. 26(3): 453-472.
Ang A.H.S., and Tang W.H., 1984a, Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning and Design, Vol. I – Basic Principles. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Ang A.H.S., and Tang W.H., 1984b, Probability Concepts in Engineering Planning and Design, Vol. II – Decision, Risk, and Reliability. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Arya L.M., and Paris J.F., 1981, A physical-empirical model to predict the soil moisture characteristic from particle size distribution and bulk density data. Soil Science Society of American Journal, Vol. 45: 1023-1030.
Arya L.M., Leij F.J., van Genuchten M.T., and Shouse P.J., 1999, Scaling parameter to predict the soil water characteristic from particle-size distribution data. Soil Science Society of American Journal, Vol. 63: 510-519.
Baecher G.B., and Christian J.T., 2003, Reliability and Statistics in Geotechnical Engineering. John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Barbosa M.R., Morris D.V., Sarma S.K., 1989, Factor of safety and probability of failure of rockfill embankments. Geotechnique, Vol. 39(3): 471-483.
Baum R.L., Savage W.Z., and Godt J.W., 2002, TRIGRS-A Fortran Program for Transient Rainfall Infiltration and Grid-Based Regional Slope-Stability Analysis. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 02-0424, 27p.
Borga M., Fontana D.G., Da Ros D., and Marchi L,. 1998, Shallow landslide hazard assessment using a physically based model and digital elevation data. Environmental Geology, 35: 81-88.
Borga M., Fontana G.D., Gregoretti C., and Marchi L., 2002, Assessment of shallow landsliding by using a physically based model of hillslope stability. Hydrological Processes, Vol. 16: 2833–2851.
Bouwer H., 1966, Rapid field measurement of air entry value and hydraulic conductivity of soil as significant parameters in flow system analysis. Water Resources Research, Vol. 2: 729-732.
Bouwer H., 1978, Surface-subsurface water relations. Ch. 8 in Groundwater Hydrology, Mc. Graw-Hill, New York.
Brakensiek D.L., 1977, Estimating the effective capillary pressure in the Green and Ampt infiltration equations. Water Resources Research, Vol. 13(3): 680-682.
Brooks R.H., and Corey A.T., Hydraulic properties of porous media. Hydrology Papers, No. 3, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
Brooks S.M., Crozier M.J., Glade T.W., and Anderson M.G., 2004, Towards Establishing Climatic Thresholds for Slope Instability: Use of a Physically-based Combined Soil Hydrology-slope Stability Model. Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vol. 161: 881–905.
Brunone B., Ferrante M., Romano N., and Santini A., 2003, Numerical Simulations of One-Dimensional Infiltration into Layered Soils with the Richards Equation Using Different Estimates of the Interlayer Conductivity. Vadose Zone Journal, Vol. 2:193–200.
Caine N., 1980, The rainfall intensity–duration control of shallow landslides and debris flows. Geografiska Annaler, Vol. 62A (1-2): 23-27.
Casadei M., Dietrich W.E., and Miller N.L., 2003, Testing a model for predicting the timing and location of shallow landslide initiation in soil-mantled landscapes. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 28: 925–950.
Casagli N., Dapporto D., Ibsen M.L., Tofani V., and Vannocci P., 2005, Analysis of triggering mechanism during the storm of 20–21 November 2000 in northern Tuscany. Landslides, Vol. 3(1): 13–21.
Celia M.A., Bouloutas E.T., and Zarba R.L., 1990, A general mass-conservative numerical solution for the unsaturated flow equation. Water Resources. Research, Vol. 26:1483–1496.
Chang M.H., Chiu Y.F., Lin S.Y., and Ke T.C., 2005, Preliminary study on the 2003 slope failure in Woo-wan-chai Area, Mt. Ali Road, Taiwan. Engineering Geology, Vol. 80: 93-114.
Chen C.Y., Chen T.C., Yu F.H., Yu W.H., and Tseng C.C., 2005a, Rainfall duration and debris-flow initiated studies for real-time monitoring. Environmental Geology, Vol. 47: 715–724.
Chen C.Y., Chen T.C., Yu W.H., and Lin S.C., 2005b, Analysis of time-varying rainfall infiltration induced landslide. Environmental Geology, Vol. 48: 466-479.
Chen C.Y., Lin L.Y., Yu F.C., Lee C.S., Tseng C.C., Wang A.H., and Cheung K.W., 2007, Improving debris flow monitoring in Taiwan by using high-resolution rainfall product from QPESUMS, Natural Hazards, Vol. 40: 447-461.
Chen H., 2006, Controlling factors of hazardous debris flow in Taiwan. Quaternary International, Vol. 147: 3-15.
Chen J.C., Jan C.D., and Lee M.H., 2007a, Probabilistic analysis of landslide potential of an inclined uniform soil layer of infinite length: theorem, Environmental Geology, Vol. 51: 1239-1248.
Chen L., and Young M.H., 2006, Green-Ampt infiltration model for sloping surface. Water Resources Research, Vol. 42: 1-9 (doi 10.1029/2005WR104468).
Chleborad A.F., Baum R.L., and Godt J.W., 2006, Rainfall thresholds for forecasting landslides in the Seattle, Washington, area—Exceedance and probability. U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2006-1064.
Cho E., and Lee S.R., 2002, Evaluation of surficial stability for homogenous slopes considering rainfall characteristics, Journal of Geotehcnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 128(9): 756-763.
Chow V.T, Maidment D.R., and Mays L.W., 1988, Subsurface water. Ch. 4 in Applied Hydrology, Mc. Graw-Hill New York.
Chowdhury R.N., and Xu D.W., 1993, Rational polynomial technique in slope stability analysis. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 119(12): 1910-1928.
Christian J.T., Ladd C.C., and Baecher G.B., 1994, Reliability applied to slope stability analysis. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 120(12): 2180-2207.
Clausnitzer V., Hopmans J.W., and Starr J.L., 1998, Parameter Uncertainty Analysis of Common Infiltration Models. Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 62: 1477–1487.
Cohen J., and Cohen P., 2003, Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences, 3rd Edition. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah N.J. :, Ch. 13, p. 479-524.
Collins B.D., and Znidarcic D., 2004, Stability analyses of rainfall induced landslides. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 130: 362–372.
Crosta G., 1998, Regionalization of rainfall thresholds: an aid to landslide hazard evaluation. Environmental Geology, Vol. 35: 131-145.
Crozier M.J., 1999, Prediction of rainfall-triggered landslides: a test of the antecedent water status model. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 24: 825-833.
Dettinger M.D., Wilson J.L., 1981, First-order analysis of uncertainty in numerical models of groundwater flow, Part 1Mathematical Development. Water Resources Research, Vol. 17(1): 146-161.
D'Odorico P., Fagherazzi S., and Rigon R., 2005, Potential for landsliding: depending in hyetograph characteristics. Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 110: F01007 (doi:10.1029/2004JF000127).
Evans N.C., and Lam J.S., 2002, Tung Chung East natural terrain study area ground movement and groundwater monitoring equipment and preliminary results. Geotechnical Engineering Office, Hong Kong, GEO Technical note TN 4/2002, 2002, 105.
Fenton G.A., 1997, Probabilistic Method in Geotechnical Engineering. Lecture Note at ASCE GeoLogan'97 Conference, Logan, Utah, USA, 15 July 1997.
Frattini P., Crosta G.B., Fusi N., Dal Negro P., 2004, Shallow landslides in pyroclastic soils: a distributed modelling approach for hazard assessment, Engineering Geology, Vol. 73: 277-295.
Fredlund D.G., and Rahardjo H., 1993, Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils. John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York.
Fredlund D.G., and Xing A.Q., 1994, Equations for the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 31(4): 521-532.
Fredlund D.G., Morgenstern N.R., and Widger R.A., 1978, The shear strength of unsaturated soils. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 15(3): 313-321.
Fredlund D.G., Xing A.Q., and Huang S.Y., 1994, Predicting the permeability function for unsaturated soils using the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 31(4): 533-546.
Fredlund M.D., Fredlund D.G., and Wilson G.W., 1997, Prediction of the soil-water characteristic curve from grain-size distribution and volume–mass properties. In Proceedings of the 3rd Brazilian Symposium on Unsaturated Soils, Rio de Janeiro, 22–25 April 1997, Vol. 1: 13–23.
Fredlund M.D., Fredlund D.G., and Wilson G.W., 2000, An equation to represent grain-size distribution. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 37: 817–827.
Fredlund M.D., Wilson G.W., and Fredlund D.G., 2002, Use of the grain-size distribution for estimation of the soil-water characteristic curve. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 39: 1103–1117.
Gadner W.R., 1958, Some steady state solutions of the unsaturated moisture flow equation with application to evaporation from water table. Soil Science, Vol. 85(4): 228-232.
Gasmo J.M., Rahardjo H., and Leong, E.C., 2000, Infiltration effects on stability of a residual soil slope. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 26: 145–165.
Giannecchini R., 2005, Rainfall triggering soil slips in the southern Apuan Alps (Tuscany, Italy). Advances in Geosciences, Vol. 2: 21-24.
Glade T., Crozier M., and Smith P., 2000, Applying Probability Determination to Refine Landslide-triggering Rainfall Thresholds Using an Empirical ‘‘Antecedent Daily Rainfall Model’’. Pure and Applied Geophysics, Vol. 157: 1059-1079.
Godt J.W., Baum R.L., and Chleborad A.F., 2006, Rainfall characteristics for shallow landsliding in Seattle, Washington, USA. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 31: 97–110.
Gray R.M., 2007, Entropy and Information Theory. Springler Verlag, New York.
Guzzetti F., Peruccacci S., and Rossi M., 2005, Definition of critical threshold for different scenarios. RISK-Advanced Weather Forecast System to Advise on Risk Events and Management (RISK-AWARE), Action 1.16, IRPI CNR, Perugia, Italy: 36p.
Guzzetti F., Peruccacci S., Rossi M., and Stark C. P., 2007, Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of landslides in central and southern Europe, Meteorology and Atmospere Physics. (Article in Press: DOI 10.1007/s00703-007-0262-7)
Hall J.W., Rubio E., and Anderson M.G., 2004, Random sets of probability measures in slope hydrology and stability analysis. ZAMM– Zeitschrift für Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik, Vol. 84(10–11): 710-720.
Highland L., 2004, Landslide type and processes. Fact-Sheet No. 2004-3072, July 2004, U.S. Geology Survey.
Ho M.L., and Chen R.H., 1997, Influence of fines washed-away on initiation of valley and slope type debris flows. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 9 (1): 1-15. (in Chinese, Abstract in English)
Hsu S.M., Ni C.F., Hung P.F., 2002, Assessment of Three Infiltration Formulas based on Model Fitting on Richards Equation. Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 5: 373–379.
Iverson R.M., 2000, Landslide triggering by rain infiltration. Water Resources Research, Vol. 36(7): 1897–1910.
Keefer D.K., Wilson R.C., Mark R.K., Brabb E.E., Brown W.M., Ellen S.D., Harp E.L., Wieczorek G.F., Alger C.S., and Zatkin R.S., 1987, Real-time landslide warning during heavy rainfall. Science, Vol. 238: 921-925.
Kim J., Jeong S., Park S., and Sharma J., 2004. Influence of rainfall-induced wetting on the stability of slopes in weathered soils. Engineering Geology, Vol. 75: 251–262.
Krahn J., Fredlund D.G., and Klassen M.J., 1989, Effect of soil suction on slope stability at Notch Hill. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 26: 269–278.
Lai S.Y., Chang W.J., and Lin P.S., 2006, Logistic regression model for evaluating soil liquefaction probability using CPT data. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132(6): 694-704.
Lamb P., 1970, Safety factors and the probability distribution of soil strength. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 7: 225-242.
Lan H.X., Lee C.F., Zhou C.H., and Martin C.D., 2005, Dynamic characteristics analysis of shallow landslides in response to rainfall event using GIS. Environmental Geology, Vol. 47: 254–267.
Lan H.X., Zhou C.H., Lee C.F., Wang S.J., and Wu F.Q., 2003, Rainfall-induced landslide stability analysis in response to transient pore pressure: A case study of natural terrain landslide in Hong Kong. Science in China Ser. E Technological Sciences, Vol. 46: 52-68.
Land Engineering Consultant Co. Ltd, 2005, Report for Sliding Area Investigation at T18 Road mileage 28K+900 – 31K+500. Ministry of Transportation and Communication of Taiwan. (in Chinese)
Lee C.S., Huang L.R., Shen H.S., and Wang S.T., 2006, A climatology model fro forecasting typhoon rainfall in Taiwan, Natural Hazards, Vol. 27: 87-105.
Leong E.C., and Rahardjo H., 1997a, Review of soil-water charactersitric curve equations. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 123(12):1106-1117.
Leong E.C., and Rahardjo H., 1997b, Permeability functions for unsaturated soils. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 123(12):1118-1126.
L'Heureux J.S.L., Hǿeg K., and Hǿydal Ǿ.A., 2006, Numerical analysis and field case study of slope subjected to rainfall. In Miller G.A. et al. (Eds): Unsaturated Soils:, Proceeding of the 4th International Conference on Unsaturated Soils, 2-6 April 2006, Arizona, USA: 2279-2290.
Li A.G., Yue Z.Q., Tham L.G., Lee C.F., and Law K.T., 2005, Field-monitored variations of soil moisture and matric suction in a saprolite slope. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol.42 (1): 13-26.
Li K.S., Lumb P., 1974, Probabilistic design of slopes. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 24: 520-535.
Liao H.J., Ching J.Y., Lee W.F., and Wei J., 2006, Landslide along mountain roads in Taiwan. In Tham L-G, Chau K-T (eds): Proceeding of the Seminar on The Sate-of-the practice of Geotechnical Engineering in Taiwan and Hong Kong, 20 January 2006, Hong Kong: 75-99.
Malkawi A.I.H., Hassan W.F., and. Abdulla F.A., 2000, Uncertainty and reliability analysis applied to slope stability. Structural Safety, Vol. 22: 161-187.
Marchi L., Arattano M., Deganutti A.M., 2002, Ten years of debris-flow monitoring in the Moscardo Torrent (Italian Alps). Geomorphology, Vol. 46: 1-17.
Matsuo M., Kuroda K., 1974, Probabilistic approach to design of embankments. Soils and Foundations, Vol. 14(2): 1-17.
Matsushi Y., 2006, Triggering mechanism and rainfall thresholds for shallow landslides on soil-mantled hillslopes with permeable and impermeable bedrocks. Ph.D Dissertation, Graduate School of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Japan, 109p.
Matsushi Y., and Matsukura Y., 2007, Rainfall threshold for shallow landsliding derived from pressure-head monitoring: cases with permeable and impermeable bedrocks in Boso Peninsula, Japan. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 32(9): 1308-1322.
Mein R.G., anf Larsorn C.L., 1973, Modeling infiltration during steady a state rain. Water Resources Research, Vol. 9(2): 384-394.
Misra S.K., Tyagi J.V., and Singh V.P., 2003, Comparison of infiltration model. Hydrological Process, Vol. 17: 2629-2652.
Montgomery D.R., and Dietrich W.E., 1989, Source areas, drainage density, and channel initiation. Water Resources Research, Vol. 25: 1907–1918.
Montgomery D.R., Dietrich W.E., 1994, A physically-based model for the topographic control on shallow landsliding, Water Resources Research, Vol. 30: 1153-1171.
Moore I.D., and Grayson R.B., 1991, Terrain-based catchment partitioning and runoff prediction using vector elevation data. Water Resources Research, Vol. 27: 1177-1191.
Morel-Seytoux H.J., and Khanji J., 1974, Derivation of an equation of infiltration. Water Resources Research, Vol. 10(4): 795-800.
Mualem Y., 1976, A new model for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated porous media. Water Resources Research, Vol. 12: 593-622.
Neuman S.P., 1976, Wetting front pressure head in the infiltration model of Green and Ampt. Water Resources Research, Vol. 12(3): 564-566.
Ng C.W.W., Wang B., and Tung Y.K., 2001, Three-dimensional numerical investigations of groundwater responses in an unsaturated slope subjected to various rainfall patterns. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 38: 1049–1062.
Odgen F.L., and Saghafian B., 1997, Green and Ampt infiltration with redistribution. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Vol. 123(5): 386-393.
O'Loughlin E.M, 1986, Prediction of surface saturation zones in natural catchments by topographic analysis. Water Resources Research, Vol. 22: 794-804.
Philip J.R. 1991, Hillslope infiltration: Planar slopes. Water Resources Research, Vol. 27(1): 109–117.
Phoon K.K., Tan T.S., and Chong, P.C., 2007, Numerical simulation of Richards equation in partially saturated porous media: under-relaxation and mass balance. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 25: 525–541.
Pradel D., and Raad G., 1993, Effect of permeability on surficial stability of homogeneous slopes. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 119(2): 315-332.
Rahardjo H., Lee T.T., Leong E.C., and Rezaur R.B., 2005, Response of a residual soil slope to rainfall. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 42: 340-351.
Rahardjo H., Lim T.T., Chang M.F., and Fredlund D.G., 1995, Shear-strength characteristics of a residual soil. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 32: 60–77.
Raudviki A.J., 1979, Hydrology. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
Rawls W.J., Brakensiek D.L., and Miller N., 1983, Green-Ampt infiltration parameters from soils data. Journal of Hydraulic Division ASCE, Vol. 109(1): 62-70.
Reichenbach P., Cardinali M., De Vita P., Guzzetti F., 1998. Regional hydrological thresholds for landslides and floods in the Tiber River Basin (centra Italy). Environmental Geology, Vol. 35 (2-3): 146-159.
Richards L.A., 1931, Capillary conduction of liquids in porous mediums. Physics, Vol. 1, 318–333.
Rinaldi M., Casagli N., Dapporto S., and Gargini A., 2004, Monitoring and modeling of pore water pressure changes and riverbank stability during flow events. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 29: 237-254.
Romano N., Brunone B., and Santini A., 1998, Numerical analysis of one-dimensional unsaturated flow in layered soils. Advances in Water Resources, Vol. 21: 315-324.
Rubio E., Hall J.W., and Anderson M.G., 2004, Uncertainty analysis in a slope hydrology and stability model using probabilistic and imprecise information. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 31: 529-536.
Tang W.H., Yücemen M.S., Ang A.H.S, 1976, Probability-based short term design of slopes. Canadian Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 13(3): 201-215.
Terlien M.T.J., 1997, Hydrological landslide triggering in ash-covered slopes of Manizales (Colombia). Geomorphology, Vol. 20: 165–175.
Terlien M.T.J., 1998, The determination of statistical and deterministic hydrological landslide-triggering thresholds. Environmental Geology, Vol. 35: 124–130.
Tofani V., Dapporto S., Vannocci P., and Casagli N., 2006, Infiltration, seepage and slope instability mechanisms during the 20–21 November 2000 rainstorm in Tuscany, central Italy. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, Vol 6: 1025–1033.
Tsai T.L, 2007, The influence of rainstorm pattern on shallow landslide, Environmental Geology. (Article in Press: DOI 10.1007/s00254-007-0767-x).
Tsai T.L, and Yang J.C., 2006, Modeling of rainfall-triggered shallow landslide. Environmental Geology, Vol. 50(4): 525–534.
Van Genuchten M.T., 1980, A close form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils. Soil Science Society of American Journal, Vol. 44: 892-898.
Varnes D.J., 1978, Slope movements, types and processes. In: "Landslides, Analysis and Control", Schuster R.L., and Krizek R.J. (Eds.), Transportation Research Board Special Report No. 176, NAS-NRC, Washington D.C., pp. 11-33.
Venmarcke E.H., 1977, Reliability of earth slopes. Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 103(11): 1227-1246.
Wang X.D., and Benson C.H., 1995, Infiltration and saturated hydraulic conductivity of compacted clay, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 121 No.10: 713-722.
Warrick A.W., Zerihun D., Sanchez C.A., and Furman A., 2005, Infiltration under variables ponding depth of water. Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, Vol. 131(4): 358-363.
Wilkinson O.L., Anderson M.G., and Lloyd D.M., 2002, An integrated hydrological model for rain-induced landslide prediction. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, Vol. 27: 1285-1297.
Wilson R.C., Wieczorek G.F.,1995, Rainfall thresholds for the initiation of debris flows at La Honda, California. Environmental and Engineering Geosciences, Vol 1: 11–27
Wu T.H, Kraft L.M., 1970, Safety analysis of slopes. Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundation Division, ASCE, Vol. 96(2): 609-630.
Wu W., and Sidle R.C., 1995, A distributed slope stability model for steep forested basins. Water Resources Research, Vol. 31: 2097–2110.
Xie M.W., Esaki T., and Cai M.F., 2004, A time-space based approach for mapping rainfall-induced shallow landslide hazard. Environmental Geology, Vol. 46: 840–850.
Zhang L.L., 2005, Probabilistic study of slope stability under rainfall condition. Ph.D Thesis, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong.