近年來，在英語作為外語（EFL）環境中，虛擬現實（VR）的應用在增強英語單字習得方面日益受到關注。然而，對於360全景VR嵌入式視覺提示（360 PVRVP）在單字學習中的具體應用研究還相對有限。本研究旨在填補這一研究缺口，探索360 PVRVP對非英語專業學生單字學習的影響，並探討在學習環境中加入視覺提示是否可以減輕外語焦慮。為了達到這一目標，研究招募了40名臺灣大學生，平均分成實驗組和對照組，每組20名學生。兩組學生都接受了視覺提示來輔助單字學習，實驗組使用了VR軟體Co Spaces Edu，對照組則使用紙本教材。為了收集數據，研究者採用了三種不同的工具：單字測試的前、後測量、外語焦慮問卷和半結構化訪談。研究結果顯示，兩組在總體單字和詞彙後測方面沒有顯著差異。然而，實驗組在語義後測得分方面表現明顯更好。此外，與對照組相比，實驗組表現出更低的外語焦慮水平，表明VR有潛力減輕學生語言學習的焦慮。這些結果對教學具有重要的啟示，並為未來的研究提供了有價值的見解。此外，基於這些發現，還提出了實際的建議和進一步研究的建議。

The utilization of virtual reality (VR) in English as a foreign language (EFL) context has gained popularity in recent years for enhancing vocabulary learning. However, limited research focuses specifically on the effects of 360 Panorama VR-embedded visual prompts (360 PVRVP) on vocabulary learning. To address this gap, this study aimed to investigate the impact of 360 PVRVP on non-English major students' English vocabulary learning and explore its potential for reducing foreign language anxiety. Forty university EFL students were evenly divided into an experimental group and a control group. Both groups received visual prompts to supplement their vocabulary learning, with the experimental group utilizing CoSpaces Edu, a VR software, and the control group receiving paper handouts. To gather data, three instruments were employed: pre- and post-vocabulary tests on semantic and lexical aspects, a foreign language anxiety questionnaire, and semi-structured interviews. The results show no significant differences between the groups in overall vocabulary and lexical test scores. However, the VR group demonstrated significantly higher scores in semantic knowledge. Furthermore, the VR group exhibited significantly lower levels of foreign language anxiety compared to the control group, suggesting the potential of VR to alleviate anxiety associated with language learning. In summary, PVRVP enhanced learners’ spatial awareness, empowering them to learn English vocabulary through navigating and exploring diverse virtual spaces. Practical suggestions for further investigation are proposed to highlight the benefits of incorporating 360 PVRVP in EFL vocabulary instruction.

Adams, Marilyn & Collins, Allan. (1977). A Schema-Theoretic View of Reading. Technical Report No. 32.
Al-Khresheh, M. H., & Al-Ruwaili, S. F. (2020). An Exploratory Study into Vocabulary Learning Strategies Used by Saudi EFL learners. Tarih Kültür Ve Sanat Araştırmaları Dergisi. https://doi.org/10.7596/taksad.v9i2.2616
Alfadil, M. (2020). Effectiveness of virtual reality game in foreign language vocabulary acquisition. Computers & Education, 153, 103893, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103893
Alrabai, F. (2014). A Model of Foreign Language Anxiety in the Saudi EFL Context. English language teaching, 7(7), 82-101.
Broadribb, S. and Carter, C. (2009), Using Second Life in human resource development. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40: 547-550. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2009.00950.x
Chen, Y. (2016). The Effects of Virtual Reality Learning Environment on Student Cognitive and Linguistic Development. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25(4), 637–646. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-016-0293-2
Chen, C., Hung, H., & Yeh, H. (2021). Virtual reality in problem‐based learning contexts: Effects on the problem‐solving performance, vocabulary acquisition and motivation of English language learners. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12528
Cheng, A., Yang, L., & Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching Language and Culture with a Virtual Reality Game. Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, 541–549. https://doi.org/10.1145/3025453.3025857
Chik, A. (2014). Digital gaming and language learning: Autonomy and community. Language Learning and Technology, 18(2), 85-100. http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2014/chik.pdf
Darke, S. (1988). Anxiety and working memory capacity. Cognition & Emotion, 2(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699938808408071
Davis, E. A. (2003). Prompting middle school science students for productive reflection: Generic and directed prompts. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 12(1), 91–142. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1201_4Slater
Deng, Y., & Zhang, F. (2019). Effects of Visual Prompt on Recycling Behavior of Waste Batteries. Psychology. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2019.1012102
Dewaele, J. M., & Li, C. (2019). Emotions in second language acquisition: A critical review and research agenda. Language Teaching, 52(2), 119-133.
Dobrova V., Trubitsin K., Labzina P., Ageenko N., Gorbunova Y. (2017) Virtual Reality in Teaching of Foreign Languages, Proceedings of the 7th International Scientific and Practical Conference "Current issues of linguistics and didactics: The interdisciplinary approach in humanities" (CILDIAH 2017), 97, 63-68 https://doi.org/10.2991/cildiah-17.2017.12
Eisenberg, S. (2014). What Works in Therapy: Further Thoughts on Improving Clinical Practice for Children With Language Disorders. Language Speech and Hearing Services in Schools, 45(2), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1044/2014_lshss-14-0021
Fahim, M., & Vaezi, R. (2011). Investigating the Effect of Visually-enhanced Input on the Acquisition of Lexical Collocations by Iranian Intermediate EFL Learners: A Case of Verb-noun Lexical Collocations. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(3). https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.3.552-560
Fassi, F., Mandelli, A., Teruggi, S., Rechichi, F., Fiorillo, F., & Achille, C. (2016). VR for Cultural Heritage. A VR-WEB-BIM for the future maintenance of Milan’s Cathedral. AVR (2), 139–157.
Feng, Z., & Zhang, F. (2019). Can Light-Shaped Visual Prompt Promote Individuals’ Lights off Behaviors More Effectively than Ordinary One? Psychology, 10(01), 79–87. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2019.101006
Fiorella, L., & Mayer, R. E. (2015). Learning as a generative activity: Eight learning strategies that promote understanding. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107707085
Franciosi, S. J., Yagi, J., Tomoshige, Y., & Ye, S. (2015). The Effect of a Simple Simulation Game on Long-Term Vocabulary Retention. The CALICO Journal, 33(3). https://doi.org/10.1558/cj.v33i2.26063
Freeman, D., Reeve, S., Robinson, A., Ehlers, A., Clark, D., Spanlang, B., & Slater, M. (2017). Virtual reality in the assessment, understanding, and treatment of mental health disorders. Psychological Medicine, 47(14), 2393–2400. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329171700040x
Hagoort, P. (2019). The neurobiology of language beyond single-word processing. Science, 366(6461), 55–58. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aax0289
Hamilton, D. C., McKechnie, J., Edgerton, E. S., & Wilson, C. D. (2020). Immersive virtual reality as a pedagogical tool in education: a systematic literature review of quantitative learning outcomes and experimental design. Journal of Computers in Education, 8(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40692-020-00169-2
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety. The Modern Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x
Horwitz, E. K. (2017). 3. On the Misreading of Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) and the Need to Balance Anxiety Research and the Experiences of Anxious Language Learners. Multilingual Matters EBooks, 31–48. https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783097722-004
\Hsu, C., Chen, Y., Lin, C., & Lien, W. (2021). Cognitive development, self-efficacy, and wearable technology use in a virtual reality language learning environment: A structural equation modeling analysis. Current Psychology, 41(3), 1618–1632. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02252-y
Hui-Chin Yeh, Sheng-Shiang Tseng & Leechin Heng (2020): Enhancing EFL students’ intracultural learning through virtual reality, Interactive Learning Environments, DOI: 10.1080/10494820.2020.1734625
Kalyuga, S. (2012). Instructional benefits of spoken words: A review of cognitive load factors. Educational Research Review, 7(2), 145–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2011.12.002
Klein, Z., Shner, G., Ginat-Frolich, R., Vervliet, B., & Shechner, T. (2020). The effects of age and trait anxiety on avoidance learning and its generalization. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 129, 103611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2020.103611
Kruk, M. (2020). Fluctuations in self-perceived foreign language anxiety during visits to Second Life: A case study. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2020.1813737.
Lan, Y. J. (2020). Immersion, interaction and experience-oriented learning: Bringing virtual reality into FL learning. Language Learning & Technology, 24(1), 1–15. http://hdl.handle.net/10125/44704
Legault, J., Zhao, J., Chi, Y.-A., Chen, W., Klippel, A., & Li, P. (2019). Immersive Virtual Reality as an Effective Tool for Second Language Vocabulary Learning. Languages, 4(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages4010013
Levy, M., & Stockwell, G. (2006). CALL dimensions: Options and issues in computer-assisted language learning. Mahwah, NJ: L. Lawrence Erlbaum.
Leonard, L. B., & Deevy, P. (2020). Retrieval Practice and Word Learning in Children With Specific Language Impairment and Their Typically Developing Peers. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 63(10), 3252–3262. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_jslhr-20-00006
Li, C., Huang, J., & Li, B. (2020). The predictive effects of classroom environment and trait emotional intelligence on Foreign Language Enjoyment and Anxiety. System, 102393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2020.102393
Liou, H. (2012). The roles of Second Life in a college computer-assisted language learning (CALL) course in Taiwan, ROC. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 25(4), 365–382. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2011.597766
Liu, R., Wang, L., Koszalka, T. A., & Wan, K. (2022). Effects of immersive virtual reality classrooms on students' academic achievement, motivation and cognitive load in science lessons. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 38(5), 1422-1433.
Lupyan, G., & Lewis, M. (2019). From words-as-mappings to words-as-cues: the role of language in semantic knowledge. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(10), 1319–1337. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2017.1404114
MacIntyre, P. D. (1999). Language anxiety: A review of the research for language teachers. Affect in foreign language and second language learning: A practical guide to creating a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere, 24, 41.
Mashhadi, F., & Jamalifar, G. (2015). Second Language Vocabulary Learning Through Visual and Textual Representation. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.06.043
Martorell, Jordi & Morucci, Piermatteo & Mancini, Simona & Molinaro, Nicola. (2020). Sentence processing: How words generate syntactic structures in the brain. 10.31234/osf.io/3utpv.
Melchor-Couto, S. (2016). Foreign language anxiety levels in Second Life oral interaction. ReCALL, 29(1), 99–119. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0958344016000185
McDonald, A. S. (2001). The Prevalence and Effects of Test Anxiety in School Children. Educational Psychology, 21(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410020019867
Nacher, V., Garcia-Sanjuan, F., & Jaen, J. (2020). Evaluating Simultaneous Visual Instructions with Kindergarten Children on Touchscreen Devices. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 36(1), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/10447318.2019.1597576
Nation, K. (2014). Lexical learning and lexical processing in children with developmental language impairments. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 369(1634), 20120387. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0387
Nyman, T., Antfolk, J., Lampinen, J. M., Korkman, J., & Santtila, P. (2020). Eyewitness identifications after witnessing threatening and non-threatening scenes in 360-degree virtual reality (or 2D) from first and third person perspectives. PLOS ONE, 15(9), e0238292. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238292
Parmaxi, A. (2020). Virtual reality in language learning: a systematic review and implications for research and practice. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1765392
Patahuddin, P., Syawal, S., & Bin-Tahir, S. Z. (2017b). Investigating Indonesian EFL Learners’ Learning and Acquiring English Vocabulary. International Journal of English Linguistics, 7(4), 128. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n4p128
Peker, H., Regalla, M. & Cox, T. D. (2018) Teaching and learning vocabulary in context: Examining engagement in three prekindergarten French classrooms. Foreign Language Annals, 51(2): 472–483.
Peixoto, B., Pinto, D., Krassmann, A. L., Coelho, A., Cabral, L., & Bessa, M. (2019). Using Virtual Reality Tools for Teaching Foreign Languages. Springer International Publishing EBooks, 581–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-16187-3_56
Pylkkanen, L., & Brennan, J. (2019). Composition: The neurobiology of syntactic and semantic structure building.
Schmitt, N. (2010). Researching Vocabulary: A Vocabulary Research Manual. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/9780230293977
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., & Huang, Y. M. (2017). Review of research on mobile language learning in authentic environments. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(3–4), 284–303.
Shadiev, R., Wu, T., & Huang, Y. (2020). Using image-to-text recognition technology to facilitate vocabulary acquisition in authentic contexts. ReCALL, 32(2), 195-212. doi:10.1017/S0958344020000038
Shiotsu, T., & Weir, C. J. (2007). The relative significance of syntactic knowledge and vocabulary breadth in the prediction of reading comprehension test performance. Language Testing, 24(1), 99–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532207071513
Tai, T.-Y., Chen, H. H.-J., & Todd, G. (2020). The impact of a virtual reality app on adolescent EFL learners’ vocabulary learning. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2020.1752735
Tsai, C. (2020). The Effects of Augmented Reality to Motivation and Performance in EFL Vocabulary Learning. International Journal of Instruction, 13(4), 987–1000. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2020.13460a
Tseng, S. S., & Yeh, H. C. (2017). Integrating reciprocal teaching in an online environment with an annotation feature to enhance low-achieving students’ English reading comprehension. Interactive Learning Environments, 26(6), 789–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2017.1412989
Tseng, W., Liou, H., & Chu, H. J. (2020). Vocabulary learning in virtual environments: Learner autonomy and collaboration. System, 88, 102190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102190
Uz Bilgin, C., & Tokel, S. T. (2019). Facilitating Contextual Vocabulary Learning in a Mobile-Supported Situated Learning Environment. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 57(4), 930–953. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633118779397
Vafaee, P., & Suzuki, Y. (2020). The Relative Significance Of Syntactic Knowledge And Vocabulary Knowledge In Second Language Listening Ability. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(2), 383-410. doi:10.1017/S0272263119000676
Wilkins, D. A. (1972). Linguistics in Language Teaching. Cambridge: MFT Press.
Wu, K. H. (2010). The Relationship between Language Learners' Anxiety and Learning Strategy in the CLT Classrooms. International Education Studies, 3(1), 174-191191.
Yamazaki, K. (2018). Computer-assisted learning of communication (CALC): A case study of Japanese learning in a 3D virtual world. ReCALL, 30(2), 214–231. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0958344017000350
Yip, F. W., & Kwan, A. C. (2006). Online vocabulary games as a tool for teaching and learning English vocabulary. Educational media international, 43(3), 233-249.
York, J., Shibata, K., Tokutake, H., & Nakayama, H. (2021). Effect of SCMC on foreign language anxiety and learning experience: A comparison of voice, video, and VR-based oral interaction. ReCALL, 33(1), 49-70. doi:10.1017/S0958344020000154
Yu, D. (2020). Interior Landscape Design and Research based on Virtual Reality Technology. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1533(3), 032038. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1533/3/032038