研究發現提取練習能夠促進往後的回憶表現，該現象稱為測驗效果。但多數相關研究所使用的提取題目與回憶的題目多為同一形式，因此該提取練習所帶來的測驗效果有待更多的研究確認。尤其當回憶的題目為變化題時，測驗效果有可能不如原本的預期。本研究利用有線索的回憶(如：A--B)，讓受試者再學一次或透過提供的線索項來回憶目標項(如：A--？)，最後利用兩不同方向的線索項再進行回憶測驗(如：A--？與？--B)，來測驗是否在反向的回憶時也能得到測驗所帶來的效果。反方向的回憶需要學習遷移來得到測驗效果。實驗一利用增加提取練習的次數來強化反方向下的回憶效果，而實驗二只利用一次的提取練習並增加提取時所需的路徑來檢驗是否反方向下也會得到測驗效果。實驗一結果顯示，多次的提取最多能夠維持反方向下的測驗效果，要將其提昇到超過同方向下所產生的測驗效果似乎不大可能。實驗二結果顯示，增加提取時所需的路徑能夠使反向回憶得到測驗效果。該研究支持提取假說，並在綜合討論提出更多的理論及應用方向。

Amounting studies have shown that taking a memory test, or a retrieval practice, enhances performance on later retention test, a phenomenon known as the testing effect. However, the testing effect was found in most studies using the final retention test identical to the initial memory test. This study used a different final test to examine testing effect by having participants first study word pairs (A--B), then restudy the word pairs (AB) and take a cued recall (A?) two times, and finally take a cued recall in the same direction (A?) or opposite direction (transfer: ?B). Experiment one examined whether testing effect would be enhanced by increasing the number of retrieval practice to. Experiment two examined whether testing effect would appear by increasing retrieval routes within one retrieval practice. Results showed that increased retrieval practice only maintained testing effect, not optimized it, and that increased retrieval routes lead to testing effects regardless of whether the final retention test required cued recall in the same direction or in the opposite direction. This suggests that testing still benefits retention when the final retention test requires transfer. The results also supported the retrieval account rather than transfer appropriate processing account. Both theoretical and practical implications were discussed.

Agarwal, P. K., Roediger, H. L., McDaniel, M. A., & McDermott, K. B. (2008). Improving student learning through the use of classroom quizzes. Poster presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Association for Psychological Science, Chicago, IL.
Anderson, J.R. (1983). A spreading activation theory of memory. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 22, 261 – 295.
Anderson, R.C., Royer, J.M., Kulhavy, R.W., Thornburg, S.D., & Kelmt, L.L. (1971). Thematic prompting in paired-associate learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 62, 315 – 321.
Bjork, R. A. (1975). Retrieval as a memory modifier: An interpretation of negative recency and related phenomena. In R. L. Solso (Ed.), Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium (pp.123–144). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bjork, R. A. (1988). Retrieval practice and the maintenance of knowledge. In M. M. Gruneberg, P. E. Morris, & R. N. Sykes (Eds.), Practical aspects of memory: Current research an disuses (Vol.1, pp. 396–401). New York: Wiley.
Bjork, R. A. (1999). Assessing our own competence Heuristics and illusions. In D. Gopher & A. Koriat (Eds.), Attention and performance: Interaction of theory and application (pp. 435 - 459). Cambridge, MA: MIT press.
Carpenter, S.K., & DeLosh, E.L. (2005). Application of the testing and spacing effects to name learning. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 619 – 636.
Carpenter, S.K., & DeLosh, E.L. (2006). Impoverished cue support enhances subsequent retention: Support for elaborative retrieval explanation of the testing effect. Memory & Cognition, 34, 268-276.
Carpenter, S.K., Pashler, H.P., & Vul, E. (2006). What types of learning are enhanced by a cued recall test? Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 13, 826-830.
Carpenter, S.K., & Pashler, H. (2007). Testing beyond words: Using tests to enhance visuospatial map learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14, 474-478.
Carpenter, S.K., Pashler, H. Wixted, J.T., & Vul, E. (2008) The effects of tests on learning and forgetting. Memory & Cognition, 36, 438-448.
Carpenter, S.K. (2009). Cue strength as a moderator of the testing effect: The benefits of elaborative retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35, 1563-1569.
Ebbinghaus, H. (1964). Memory: A contribution to experimental psychology (H. A. Ruger & C. E. Bussenius, Trans.). NewYork: Dover. (Originalworkpublished1885)
Johnson, C.I., & Mayer, R. E. (2009). A testing effect with multimedia learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101, 621-629.
Kang, S.H.K., McDermott, K.B., & Roediger III, H.L. (2007). Test format and corrective feedback modify the effect of testing on long-term retention. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 528-558.
Karpicke, J.D., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning. Science, 319, 966-968.
McDaniel, M. A., Anderson, J. L., Derbish, M. H., & Morrisette, N. (2007). Testing the testing effect in the classroom. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19, 494–513.
McDaniel, M.A., & Masson, M.E.J. (1985). Altering memory representations through retrieval. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 11, 371 – 385.
Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer-appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, 519–533.
Moreno, R. (2004). Decreasing cognitive load for novice students: Effects of explanatory versus corrective feedback in discovery-based multimedia. Instructional Science, 32, 99-113.
Ohio State University. (n.d.). Admission. Retrieved June 20, 2010, from http://www.cse.ohio-state.edu/grad/phd.shtml
Pashler, H., Cepeda, N. J., Wixted, J. T., & Rohrer, D. (2005). When does feedback facilitate learning of words? Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 3-8.
Perkins, D.N., & Salomon, G. (1992). Transfer of learning. In International Encyclopedia of Education (2nd ed.). England: Pergamon Press.
Roediger, H. L., III, & Karpicke, J.D. (2006a). Test-enhanced learning: Taking memory test improves long-term retention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-210.
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J.D. (2006). The power of testing memory: Basic research and implications for educational practice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-210.
Rohrer, D., Yaylor, K., & Sholar, B. (2010). Tests enhance the transfer of learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 36, 233-239.
Roediger, H. L., & Karpicke, J.D. (2007). Repeated retrieval during learning is the key to long-term retention. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 1, 181-210.
Roediger, H. L., Agarwal, P. K., Kang, S. H. K, & Marsh, E. J. (2010). Benefits of testing memory: Best practice and boundary conditions. In G. M. Davies & D. B. Wright (Eds.), New frontiers in applied memory (pp. 13-49). Brighton, U.K.: Psychology Press.
Runquist, W.N. (1986). Changes in the rate of forgetting produced by recall tests. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 40, 282 – 289.
Toppino, T.C., & Cohen, M.S. (2009). The Testing Effect and the Retention Interval: Questions and Answers. Experimental Psychology, 56, 252 – 257.
Tulving, E. (1967). The effects of presentation and recall of material in
free-recall learning. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 6,175–184.
Schneider, V.I., Healy, A.F., & Bourne, L.E. (2002). What is learned under difficult conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 419 – 440.
Sheffield, F.D. (1946). The role of meaningfulness of stimulus and response in verbal learning. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
Wheeler, M. A., Ewers, M., & Buonanno, J. F. (2003). Different rates
of forgetting following study versus test trials. Memory, 11,571–580.
Wheeler, M.A., & Roediger, H.L., III. (1992). Disparate effects of repeated testing: Reconciling Ballard’s (1913) and Bartlett’s (1932) results. Psychological Science, 3, 240-245.
陳學志 （民88）。認知及認知的自我監控-中文詞聯想常模的建立。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫成果報告。