簡易檢索 / 詳目顯示

回結果列表
研究生： NGO CONG LEM
NGO CONG LEM
論文名稱： 透過線上數位文本閱讀量預測大學生的第二外語字彙量和閱讀成長
Predicting Undergraduate Students’ L2 Vocabulary Size and Reading Growth from their Exposure to Digital Text Online
指導教授： 李思穎
Sy-Ying Lee
口試委員: 謝育芬
Yu-Fen Hsieh
林珊如
Sunny Lin
學位類別： 碩士
Master
系所名稱： 人文社會學院 - 應用外語系
Department of Applied Foreign Languages
論文出版年： 2019
畢業學年度： 107
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 101
中文關鍵詞： online reading 、reading growth 、vocabulary size 、print exposure 、recognition test 、reading comprehension
外文關鍵詞： online reading, reading growth, vocabulary size, print exposure, recognition test, reading comprehension
相關次數： 點閱：334  下載：12 
分享至:
查詢本校圖書館目錄 查詢臺灣博碩士論文知識加值系統 勘誤回報

    • 閱讀毫無疑問是個人學業成功的關鍵。 科技的出現為人類生活帶來許多層面的改變，其中包括我們閱讀文本的方式。 生活在科技引領的社會中，學習者比過去更頻繁地閱讀電子文本。 雖然一直以來都有研究指出：個人閱讀技能的發展和實體讀物的接觸或紙本閱讀經驗相關，但鮮少有研究探討線上閱讀第二外語文本對讀者語言能力的影響。 有鑑於線上閱讀因其普及性已被列為新興的識讀技能，並其和紙本閱讀在風格、理解能力上的差異（Loan，2012），線上閱讀對讀者讀寫發展的影響（如果有的話）值得更多的研究。
    有賴於紙本閱讀和相關閱讀模態研究的理論框架，本追蹤研究旨在探討閱讀第二外語線上文本對英語學習者語言能力的影響。具體而言，此研究以開發和驗證新的檢核表測驗為目標，一為評估個人線上閱讀第二外語文本對其語言能力的影響，二是追蹤該影響對英語學習者兩年來詞彙知識和閱讀理解成長的效應。作者進一步檢驗研究變數間的結構關係，並查驗受試者中是否具有成群的潛在性。
    本研究的受試者是越南籍大學生（總數為 97人），他們接受了一系列的測驗：（1）詞彙量測試（採用於Nation和Beglar（2007）、（2）閱讀習慣的自評報告，以及（ 3）兩份檢核表識別測驗，即網站識別測驗（WRT）和臉書識別測驗（FRT）。網站識別測驗用於瞭解受試者平時的線上閱讀經驗，臉書識別測驗則探討他們使用臉書的閱讀體驗。 受試者的學科閱讀成績採自該校提供的資料，作為衡量他們閱讀能力的基礎。
    本研究以量化方法探討研究問題，使用一系列統計軟體，包括SPSS 22.0版、AMOS 22版、Mplus 7.0和R。兩項測驗的效度及信度分別透過探索性因素分析（ EFA）、驗證性因素分析（CFA），並項目反應理論（IRT）加以驗證。接著檢驗研究變數間的相關性。檢核過統計假設後，進行多元回歸和層次迴歸分析，以揭露網站識別測驗和臉書識別測驗對受試者詞彙知識和閱讀理解(RC)的影響。結構方程模型（SEM）則進一步用於檢驗研究變數間的結構關係。 最後，運用潛在類別分析，根據受試者在兩項測驗及閱讀理解的表現進行分組。
    根據兩項因素分析及項目反應理論的結果，網站識別測驗和臉書識別測驗具有足夠的效度及信度，可評估線上閱讀第二外語文本對受試者語言能力的影響。 研究發現，即使在控制了閱讀理解力的變數後，第二外語的線上閱讀經驗仍能顯著預測受試者的詞彙量。 此外，接觸第二外語線上文本也顯著促進英語學習者兩年來的閱讀成長。結構方程模型的結果更進一步說明了二語線上閱讀對受試者語言能力的顯著影響，另一方面，潛在類別分析顯示受試者可以分為兩個潛在群體，其中較傾向二語線上閱讀的一組有較好的閱讀表現。 最後，針對兩方面討論教學意涵，其一強調二語休閒閱讀的力量，其二為使學習者具備數位素養技能的重要性。

    Reading skill is unquestionably crucial for an individual’s academic success. The advent of technology has transformed human life in many ways, including the way we read text. Living in a technology-drive society, our learners are reading electronic text more frequently than ever before. Given the popularity of online reading as a new literacy skill and that online reading can be relatively different from print reading (Loan, 2012), more research is warranted to uncover its effect, if there is, on readers’ literacy development. Specifically, while print exposure/ print-based reading experience has been consistently found to contribute to the development of individuals’ literacy skills, it is relatively unknown whether L2 online text exposure (L2OTE) could produce a similar effect on readers.
    Drawing on the theoretical frameworks in print exposure, reading medium effect and web-based technology for L2 education, the current longitudinal study examines the impact of L2OTE on Vietnamese EFL learners’ growth of language competencies. Specifically, it first attempts to develop and validate two new recognition tests, i.e., Website Recognition Test (WRT) and Facebook Recognition Test (FRT), for the L2OTE assessment purpose. Second, this study investigates the effect of L2OTE on participants’ vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension growth. Another purpose of this research is to test the causal relationships among the study variables with Structural Equation Modelling before exploring the participants’ patterns of web-based reading experiences and accomplishments with Latent Class Analysis.
    Participants in this study were 97 Vietnamese EFL learners, who majored in English at a tertiary institution. They were administered a battery of tests: (1) a vocabulary size test (adopted from Nation and Beglar’s (2007), (2) self-report reading habit questions; and (3) two recognition tests, i.e., WRT and FRT, respectively. While the former was designed to tap into the participants’ general website reading experience, the latter probed into their Facebook reading. Reading comprehension achievements of the participants throughout four consecutive semesters were collected from the institution’s database and utilized as their reading proficiency.
    The research questions in this study were addressed in a quantitative approach, utilizing a range of statistical software, including SPSS version 22.0, AMOS version 22, Mplus 7.0 and R. The validity and reliability of WRT and FRT were firstly examined with Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA), Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and Item Response Theory (IRT). Next, Pearson correlations among the study variables were inspected before a series of hierarchical regressions were performed to uncover the effect of L2OTE on the participants’ lexical knowledge and reading comprehension. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) was utilized to test the structural relationships among the study variables and lastly, the participants were clustered into different latent profiles with Latent Class Analysis (LCA).
    The findings indicated that WRT and FRT appeared to possess sufficient validity and reliability to assess the participants’ exposure to L2 online text according to the EFA, CFA and IRT results. L2 online reading experience was a significant predictor of the participants’ vocabulary size even after controlling for their reading comprehension ability. L2OTE significantly contributed to the EFL learners’ reading growth for a period of two years. SEM results further showed the significant effect of L2OTE on participants’ reading abilities, whereas LCA revealed that participants could be effectively classified into two latent profiles, one of which was characterized with a higher level of web-based reading and reading outcomes, whereas the other demonstrated the reverse pattern. Finally, pedagogical implications were discussed, emphasizing the power of recreational reading for L2 acquisition and the need for empowering EFL learners with Internet skills and resources.

    ACKNOLWEGDEMENT i TABLE OF CONTENT ii LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vi ABSTRACT viii CHAPTER 1 10 INTRODUCTION 10 1.1 Background of the Study 10 1.2 Statement of the Problem 12 1.3 Purposes of the Study 13 1.4 Research Questions 14 1.5 Definitions of Terms 14 1.6 Significance of the Study 14 1.7 Limitations of the Study 15 1.8 Organization of the study 15 CHAPTER II 16 LITERATURE REVIEW 16 2.1 Definition of Print Exposure and the Conceptualization of L2 Online Text Exposure 16 2.2 Print Exposure and Literacy Development 17 2.3 Assessment of Print Reading Experience 19 2.3.1 Self-Report Instruments to Measure Print Reading Experience 19 2.3.2 Recognition Test as An Objective Indicator of Reading Experience 21 2.3.3 The Validity and Reliability of Recognition Tests 23 2.4 Text-Genre Effect on Reading Skill Development 26 2.5 Digital-Based versus Print-Based Reading? Does it Make a Difference? 29 2.5.1 Factors Influencing Readers’ Experience Engaging in Print and Digital Reading 29 2.5.2 The Reading Medium Effect on Reading Comprehension 30 2.5.3 Reading Habits in Print-Based and Digital Online-Based Environment 32 2.6 Web 2.0 Resources in Language Education 33 2.6.1 Online Websites as L2 Reading Sources 33 2.6.2 The Educational Affordance for Facebook for Language Learning 34 2.7 The Potential Methodological Flaws in Designing Recognition Checklist 36 2.7.1 The Target Population 36 2.7.2 Type of Reading Experience that Recognition Test Targets 37 2.7.3 Statistical Analysis for Reliability for Recognition Checklist Test 37 2.8 Summary of Literature Review 38 CHAPTER 3 40 METHODOLOGY 40 3.1 Participants 40 3.2 Data Collection Instruments 40 3.2.1 The Development of Website Recognition Test and Facebook Recognition Test 40 3.2.2 Self-Report Reading Questions 44 3.2.3 Vocabulary Size Test 44 3.2.4 Reading Comprehension Achievements 45 3.3 Procedures 47 3.4 Data Analysis 47 CHAPTER 4 51 FINDINGS 51 4.1 Descriptive Statistics for the Study Variables 51 4.2 Validation of the Website Recognition Test and Facebook Recognition Test 52 4.2.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) Results 52 4.2.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Results 53 4.2.3 Rasch Model Results Regarding the Psychometrics of Website Recognition Test and Facebook Recognition 54 4.3 Correlations between Exposure to L2 Online Text, Vocabulary Size and Reading Comprehension Ability 58 4.4 Linear Regression Analyses 59 4.4.1 Linear relationships between the study variables 59 4.4.2 Multiple and hierarchical linear regression predicting lexical size and reading comprehension abilities 61 4.4.3 Hierarchical linear regression analysis predicting reading growth 63 4.5 Structural Equation Modelling to Illustrate the Causal Relationships among the Study Variables 65 4.6 Latent Class Analysis to Reveal the Patterns of Participants’ Patterns of Exposure to L2 Online Text 66 4.7 Summary of Chapter 5 - Results 68 CHAPTER 5 70 DISCUSSION 70 5.1 WRT and FRT as Objective Instruments to Assess L2 Online Text Exposure 70 5.2 The Long-Term Impact of L2 Online Reading Experience on EFL Learners’ Linguistic Achievements 72 5.3 The Convergent Effect of Print and Digital Reading and of L1 and L2 Reading Experience 75 5.4 The Different Extent of Advantages Between Website and Facebook Reading 77 5.5 Pedagogical Implications 78 CHAPTER 6 81 CONCLUSIONS 81 REFERENCES 83 APPENDICES 91 APPENDIX A 91 APPENDIX B 92 APPENDIX C 93 APPENDIX D 94 APPENDIX E 95

    Acheson, D. J., Wells, J. B., & MacDonald, M. C. (2008). New and updated tests of print exposure and reading abilities in college students. Behavior Research Methods, 40(1), 278-289.
    Akarsu, O., & Darıyemez, T. (2014). The reading habits of university students studying English language and literature in the digital age. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 10(2), 85-99.
    Akbari, E., Naderi, A., Simons, R. J., & Pilot, A. (2016). Student engagement and foreign language learning through online social networks. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second and Foreign Language Education, 1(1), 4.
    Akbari, E., Pilot, A., & Simons, P. R. J. (2015). Autonomy, competence, and relatedness in foreign language learning through Facebook. Computers in Human Behavior, 48(2015), 126-134.
    Akbari, E., Simons, P. R. J., Pilot, A., & Naderi, A. (2017). Peer Feedback in Learning a Foreign Language in Facebook. Global Journal of Human Social Science, 17(2), 31-44.
    Allen, L., Cipielewski, J., & Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Multiple indicators of children's reading habits and attitudes: Construct validity and cognitive correlates. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84(4), 489.
    Alshumaimeri, Y. A., & Almasri, M. M. (2012). The effects of using WebQuests on reading comprehension performance of Saudi EFL students. TOJET: The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 11(4).
    Anderson, E. L., Steen, E., & Stavropoulos, V. (2017). Internet use and Problematic Internet Use: A systematic review of longitudinal research trends in adolescence and emergent adulthood. International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 22(4), 430-454.
    Anderson, R. C., Wilson, P. T., & Fielding, L. G. (1988). Growth in reading and how children spend their time outside of school. Reading research quarterly, 285-303.
    Arnold, N. (2009). Online extensive reading for advanced foreign language learners: An evaluation study. Foreign Language Annals, 42(2), 340-366.
    Aydin, S. (2012). A review of research on Facebook as an educational environment. Educational Technology research and development, 60(6), 1093-1106.
    Bagozzi, R. P., & Yi, Y. (1988). On the evaluation of structural equation models. Journal of the academy of marketing science, 16(1), 74-94.
    Beglar, D. (2010). A Rasch-based validation of the Vocabulary Size Test. Language Testing, 27(1), 101-118.
    Bergen, E., Zuijen, T., Bishop, D., & Jong, P. F. (2017). Why are home literacy environment and children's reading skills associated? What parental skills reveal. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 147-160.
    Best, R., Ozuru, Y., Floyd, R. G., & McNamara, D. S. (2006, June). Children's text comprehension: effects of genre, knowledge, and text cohesion. In Proceedings of the 7th international conference on Learning sciences (pp. 37-42). International Society of the Learning Sciences.
    Boerma, I. E., Mol, S. E., & Jolles, J. (2017). The role of home literacy environment, mentalizing, expressive verbal ability, and print exposure in third and fourth graders’ reading comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 21(3), 179-193.
    Buga, R., Căpeneaţă, I., Chirasnel, C., & Popa, A. (2014). Facebook in foreign language teaching–A tool to improve communication competences. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 128, 93-98.
    Burgess, S. (2005). The preschool home literacy environment provided by teenage mothers. Early Child Development and Care, 175(3), 249-258.
    Chang, R., Kennedy, G., & Petrovic, T. (2008, December). Web 2.0 and user-created content: Students negotiating shifts in academic authority. In ASCILITE (pp. 165-169).
    Chateau, D., & Jared, D. (2000). Exposure to print and word recognition processes. Memory & Cognition, 28(1), 143-153.
    Chen, G., Cheng, W., Chang, T. W., Zheng, X., & Huang, R. (2014). A comparison of reading comprehension across paper, computer screens, and tablets: Does tablet familiarity matter?. Journal of Computers in Education, 1(2-3), 213-225.
    Chen, S. Y., & Fang, S. P. (2016). Print Exposure of Taiwanese Fifth Graders: Measurement and Prediction. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 25(1), 69-78.
    Choudhury, N. (2014). World Wide Web and its journey from web 1.0 to web 4.0. International Journal of Computer Science and Information Technologies, 5(6), 8096-8100.
    Chugh, R., & Ruhi, U. (2018). Social media in higher education: A literature review of Facebook. Education and Information Technologies, 23(2), 605-616.
    Chugh, R., & Ruhi, U. (2018). Social media in higher education: A literature review of Facebook. Education and Information Technologies, 23(2), 605-616.
    Cipielewski, J., & Stanovich, K. E. (1992). Predicting growth in reading ability from children's exposure to print. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 54(1), 74-89.
    Coiro, J., & Dobler, E. (2007). Exploring the online reading comprehension strategies used by sixth‐grade skilled readers to search for and locate information on the Internet. Reading Research Quarterly, 42(2), 214-257.
    Cong-Lem, N. (2018). Does Exposure to L2 Facebook Pages Impact Your Language Learning? An Examination of the Relation Between Facebook Reading Experience and Foreign Language Development. Korea TESOL Journal, 14(1), 203-228.
    Constantino, R., Lee, S. Y., Cho, K. S. & Krashen, S. (1997). Free voluntary reading as a predictor of TOEFL scores. Applied Language Learning, 8(1), 111-118.
    Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1990). Assessing print exposure and orthographic processing skill in children: A quick measure of reading experience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(4), 733.
    Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Tracking the unique effects of print exposure in children: Associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83(2), 264.
    Cunningham, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1997). Early reading acquisition and its relation to reading experience and ability 10 years later. Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 934.
    Davidse, N. J., de Jong, M. T., Bus, A. G., Huijbregts, S. C., & Swaab, H. (2011). Cognitive and environmental predictors of early literacy skills. Reading and Writing, 24(4), 395-412.
    Day, R. R. (2010). The benefits of extensive reading (ER). Retrieved from http://www.oupe.es/es/ELT/supplementary-material/Readers/bookworms/Recursos%20Destacados/the%20benefits%20of%20extensive%20reading.pdf
    DeStefano, D., & LeFevre, J. A. (2007). Cognitive load in hypertext reading: A review. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(3), 1616-1641.
    Echols, L. D., West, R. F., Stanovich, K. E., & Zehr, K. S. (1996). Using children's literacy activities to predict growth in verbal cognitive skills: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88(2), 296.
    Eden, S., & Eshet‐Alkalai, Y. (2013). The effect of format on performance: Editing text in print versus digital formats. British Journal of Educational Technology, 44(5), 846-856.
    Elley, W. B. (2000). The potential of book floods for raising literacy levels. International Review of Education, 46(3-4), 233-255.
    Elley, W. B., & Mangubhai, F. (1983). The impact of reading on second language learning. Reading Research Quarterly, 19, 53-67.
    Fagioli, L., Rios-Aguilar, C., & Deil-Amen, R. (2015). Changing the context of student engagement: Using Facebook to increase community college student persistence and success. Teachers College Record, 117(12), 1-42.
    Farver, J. A. M., Xu, Y., Eppe, S., & Lonigan, C. J. (2006). Home environments and young Latino children's school readiness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(2), 196-212.
    Fong, K., Mullin, J. B., & Mar, R. A. (2013). What you read matters: The role of fiction genre in predicting interpersonal sensitivity. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts, 7(4), 370.
    Gamble, C., & Wilkins, M. (2014). Student Attitudes and Perceptions of Using Facebook for Language Learning. Dimension, 49-72. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1080264.pdf
    George, D. and Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. (4th Edn). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
    Grabe, W. P., & Stoller, F. L. (2013). Teaching and researching: Reading. New York, NY: Routledge.
    Grant, A., Wilson, A. M., & Gottardo, A. (2007). The Role of Print Exposure in ReadingSkills of Postsecondary Students With andWithout Reading Disabilities. Exceptionality Education International, 17(2), 175-194.
    Griffiths, Y. M., & Snowling, M. J. (2002). Predictors of exception word and nonword reading in dyslexic children: The severity hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(1), 34.
    Guo, S. C. (2012). Using Authentic Materials for Extensive Reading to Promote English Proficiency. English Language Teaching, 5(8), 196-206.
    Hahnel, C., Goldhammer, F., Kröhne, U., & Naumann, J. (2017). Reading digital text involves working memory updating based on task characteristics and reader behavior. Learning and Individual Differences, 59, 149-157.
    Herath, C. (2010). How do we Read Online: The effect of the Internet on reading behavior (master’s thesis). Retrieved from http://researcharchive.vuw.ac.nz/xmlui/bitstream/handle/10063/1443/thesis.pdf?sequence=2
    Hou, J., Rashid, J., & Lee, K. M. (2017). Cognitive map or medium materiality? Reading on paper and screen. Computers in Human Behavior, 67(2017), 84-94.
    Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: a Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1-55.
    Jabr, F. (April 11, 2013). The Reading Brain in the Digital Age: The Science of Paper versus Screens. Scientific American. Retrieved online at: www.scientificamerican.com/article/reading-paper-screens/.
    Jin, S. (2015). Using Facebook to promote Korean EFL learners’ intercultural competence. Language Learning & Technology, 19(3), 38-51. Retrieved from https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/44429/1/19_03_action2.pdf
    Jung, T., & Wickrama, K. A. S. (2008). An introduction to latent class growth analysis and growth mixture modeling. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2(1), 302-317.
    Kabilan, M. K., & Zahar, T. Z. M. E. (2016). Enhancing students’ vocabulary knowledge using the Facebook environment. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 5(2), 217-230.
    Kabilan, M. K., Ahmad, N., & Abidin, M. J. Z. (2010). Facebook: An online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education?. The Internet and Higher Education, 13(4), 179-187.
    Karvounidis, T., Chimos, K., Bersimis, S., & Douligeris, C. (2014). Evaluating W eb 2.0 technologies in higher education using students' perceptions and performance. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 30(6), 577-596.
    Kelloway, E. K. (1998). Using LISREL for structural equation modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
    Kim, J. S. (2007). The effects of a voluntary summer reading intervention on reading activities and reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(3), 505.
    Kline, R. B. (1998). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Guilford.
    Krashen, S. D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.463.8762&rep=rep1&type=pdf
    Krashen, S. D. (2004). The power of reading: Insights from the research: Insights from the research. ABC-CLIO.
    Krashen, Stephen D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.
    Le Thi Cam Nguyen, & Nation, P. (2011). A bilingual vocabulary size test of English for Vietnamese learners. RELC Journal, 42(1), 86-99.
    Lee, S. Y. (2007). Revelations from three consecutive studies on extensive reading. RELC Journal, 38(2), 150-170.
    Lee, S. Y., Krashen, S., & Tse, L. (1997). The author recognition test and vocabulary knowledge: a replication. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85(3_suppl), 1428-1430.
    Leu, D. J., Castek, J., Hartman, D., Coiro, J., Henry, L., Kulikowich, J., & Lyver, S. (2005). Evaluating the development of scientific knowledge and new forms of reading comprehension during online learning. Final report presented to the North Central Regional Educational Laboratory/Learning Point Associates. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.547.3811&rep=rep1&type=pdf
    Leu, D. J., Kinzer, C. K., Coiro, J., Castek, J., & Henry, L. A. (2017). New literacies: A dual-level theory of the changing nature of literacy, instruction, and assessment. Journal of Education, 197(2), 1-18.
    Li, L. Y., Chen, G. D., & Yang, S. J. (2013). Construction of cognitive maps to improve e-book reading and navigation. Computers & Education, 60(1), 32-39.
    Li, M., Murphy, P. K., & Firetto, C. M. (2014). Examining the effects of text genre and structure on fourth-and fifth-grade students’ high-level comprehension as evidenced in small-group discussions. International Journal of Educational Psychology: IJEP, 3(3), 205-234.
    Lin, T. J., & Tsai, C. C. (2017). Developing instruments concerning scientific epistemic beliefs and goal orientations in learning science: a validation study. International Journal of Science Education, 39(17), 2382-2401.
    Liu, Z. (2005). Reading behavior in the digital environment: Changes in reading behavior over the past ten years. Journal of documentation, 61(6), 700-712.
    Loan, F. A. (2012). Impact of the Internet surfing on reading practices and choices. Webology, 9(1), 1-10.
    Luckin, R., Clark, W., Graber, R., Logan, K., Mee, A., & Oliver, M. (2009). Do Web 2.0 tools really open the door to learning? Practices, perceptions and profiles of 11–16‐year‐old students. Learning, Media and Technology, 34(2), 87-104.
    Manca, S., & Ranieri, M. (2016). Facebook and the others. Potentials and obstacles of social media for teaching in higher education. Computers & Education, 95(2016), 216-230.
    Mangen, A., Walgermo, B. R., & Brønnick, K. (2013). Reading linear texts on paper versus computer screen: Effects on reading comprehension. International Journal of Educational Research, 58, 61-68.
    Mano, Q. R., & Guerin, J. M. (2018). Direct and indirect effects of print exposure on silent reading fluency. Reading and Writing, 31(2), 483-502.
    Mar, R. A., Oatley, K., Hirsh, J., dela Paz, J., & Peterson, J. B. (2006). Bookworms versus nerds: Exposure to fiction versus non-fiction, divergent associations with social ability, and the simulation of fictional social worlds. Journal of Research in Personality, 40(5), 694-712.
    Mar, R. A., Tackett, J. L., & Moore, C. (2010). Exposure to media and theory-of-mind development in preschoolers. Cognitive Development, 25(1), 69-78.
    Marschark, M., Sarchet, T., Convertino, C. M., Borgna, G., Morrison, C., & Remelt, S. (2011). Print exposure, reading habits, and reading achievement among deaf and hearing college students. Journal of deaf studies and deaf education, 17(1), 61-74.
    Martin‐Chang, S. L., & Gould, O. N. (2008). Revisiting print exposure: Exploring differential links to vocabulary, comprehension and reading rate. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(3), 273-284.
    Mizrachi, D. (2015). Undergraduates' academic reading format preferences and behaviors. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 41(3), 301-311.
    Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing students' metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. Journal of Educational Psychology, 94(2), 249.
    Mol, S. E., & Bus, A. G. (2011). To read or not to read: a meta-analysis of print exposure from infancy to early adulthood. Psychological bulletin, 137(2), 267.
    Moore, M., & Gordon, P. C. (2015). Reading ability and print exposure: Item response theory analysis of the author recognition test. Behavior research methods, 47(4), 1095-1109.
    Nation, I. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and listening?. Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 59-82.
    Nation, I. S. P., & Beglar, D. (2007). A vocabulary size test. The language teacher, 31(7), 9-13.
    Osana, H. P., Lacroix, G. L., Tucker, B. J., Idan, E., & Jabbour, G. W. (2007). The impact of print exposure quality and inference construction on syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(4), 888.
    Ouellette, G. P. (2006). What's meaning got to do with it: The role of vocabulary in word reading and reading comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(3), 554.
    Özdemir, E. (2017). Promoting EFL learners’ intercultural communication effectiveness: a focus on Facebook. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(6), 510-528.
    Paulhus, D. L. (1984). Two-component models of socially desirable responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46(3), 598-609.
    Rain, M., & Mar, R. A. (2014). Measuring reading behavior: Examining the predictive validity of print-exposure checklists. Empirical Studies of the Arts, 32(1), 93-108.
    Raykov, T., Dimitrov, D. M., & Asparouhov, T. (2010). Evaluation of scale reliability with binary measures using latent variable modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(2), 265-279.

    Rizopoulos, D. (2006) ltm: An R package for latent variable modelling and item response theory analyses. Journal of Statistical Software, 17(5), 1–25. Retrieved from http://www.jstatsoft.org/v17/i05/
    Roberts, M. C., & Barber, C. R. (2013). Effects of Reading Formats on the Comprehension of New Independent Readers. Journal of Literacy and Technology, 14(2), 24–55.
    Saeed, M. A., & Ghazali, K. (2017). Asynchronous group review of EFL writing: Interactions and text revisions. Language Learning & Technology, 21(2), 200–226. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2017/saeedghazali.pdf
    Schreiber, J. B. (2017). Latent class analysis: an example for reporting results. Research in Social and Administrative Pharmacy, 13(6), 1196-1201.
    Scott, J. (1991). The measurement of information systems effectiveness: Evaluating a measuring instrument. In Proceedings of the Fifteenth International Conference on Information Systems (pp. 111–128). Vancouver, BC.
    Sénéchal, M., & LeFevre, J. A. (2002). Parental involvement in the development of children’s reading skill: A five‐year longitudinal study. Child Development, 73(2), 445-460.
    Shams, L., & Seitz, A. R. (2008). Benefits of multisensory learning. Trends in cognitive sciences, 12(11), 411-417.
    Siddiqui, S., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (1998). The influence of print exposure on syllogistic reasoning and knowledge of mental-state verbs. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2(1), 81-96.
    Singer, L. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2017a). Reading across mediums: Effects of reading digital and print texts on comprehension and calibration. The Journal of Experimental Education, 85(1), 155-172.
    Singer, L. M., & Alexander, P. A. (2017b). Reading on paper and digitally: What the past decades of empirical research reveal. Review of Educational Research, 87(6), 1007-1041.
    Schmidt, R. (2012). Attention, awareness, and individual differences in language learning. In W. M. Chan, K. N. Chin, S. Bhatt, & I. Walker (Eds.), Perspectives on individual characteristics and foreign language education (pp. 27–50). Boston, MA: Mouton de Gruyter.
    Schmidt, R. (1990). The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.
    Snodgrass, J. G., & Corwin, J. (1988). Pragmatics of measuring recognition memory: applications to dementia and amnesia. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 117(1), 34.
    Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., & Murdoch, A. (2014). Early reading success and its relationship to reading achievement and reading volume: Replication of ‘10 years later’. Reading and Writing, 27(1), 189-211.
    Spear-Swerling, L., Brucker, P. O., & Alfano, M. P. (2010). Relationships between sixth-graders’ reading comprehension and two different measures of print exposure. Reading and Writing, 23(1), 73-96.
    Stainthorp, R. (1997). A children’s author recognition test: A useful tool in reading research. Journal of Research in Reading, 20(2), 148-158.
    Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. (1992). Studying the consequences of literacy within a literate society: The cognitive correlates of print exposure. Memory & Cognition, 20(1), 51-68.
    Stanovich, K. E., & West, R. F. (1989). Exposure to print and orthographic processing. Reading Research Quarterly, 24(4), 402-433.
    Stanovich, K. E., West, R. F., & Harrison, M. R. (1995). Knowledge growth and maintenance across the life span: The role of print exposure. Developmental Psychology, 31(5), 811-826.
    Stoffelsma, L. (2018). Short‐term gains, long‐term losses? A diary study on literacy practices in Ghana. Journal of Research in Reading, 0(0), 1-19.
    Strasser, K., Vergara, D., & del Río, M. F. (2017). Contributions of print exposure to first and second grade oral language and reading in Chile. Journal of Research in Reading, 40, S87-S106.
    Suk, N. (2017). The effects of extensive reading on reading comprehension, reading rate, and vocabulary acquisition. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(1), 73-89.
    Sun, Y. C. (2003). Extensive reading online: An overview and evaluation. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(4), 438-446.
    Verstegen, S. A. J. M. (2016). The effects of genre on text comprehension: Online and offline processing of narrative and expository texts (master's thesis). Retrieved from https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/335398
    Wang, C. H., & Chen, C. P. (2013). Effects of Facebook Tutoring on Learning English as a Second Language. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED562299.pdf.
    Wästlund, E., Reinikka, H., Norlander, T., & Archer, T. (2005). Effects of VDT and paper presentation on consumption and production of information: Psychological and physiological factors. Computers in Human Behavior, 21(2), 377-394.
    West, R. F., Stanovich, K. E., & Mitchell, H. R. (1993). Reading in the real world and its correlates. Reading Research Quarterly, 28(1), 35-50.
    Williams, B., Onsman, A., & Brown, T. (2010). Exploratory factor analysis: A five-step guide for novices. Australasian Journal of Paramedicine, 8(3). Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.475.8594&rep=rep1&type=pdf
    Zhang, S. Z., Georgiou, G. K., Xu, J., Liu, J. M., Li, M., & Shu, H. (2017). Different measures of print exposure predict different aspects of vocabulary. Reading Research Quarterly, 53(4), 443-454.

    QR CODE