The increasing energy demand and the urgent need to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have made the design of optimal hybrid renewable energy systems (HRESs) more essential than ever. In this context, the system reliability, the intermittency of renewables, and the economic-environmental trade-offs are the main challenges that need to be addressed toward the transition to a more sustainable and reliable energy future. This study proposes a mixed integer non-linear programming for multi-objective optimal sizing of HRES including wind turbine, energy storage, and diesel generator. Two functions of the economic and environmental objectives are to minimize the total system cost and total carbon emissions released into the atmosphere, respectively; while ensuring a high degree of renewable fraction and system reliability. The weighted sum method combining a dynamic weight assignment strategy is used to find the set of optimal solutions and investigate the two conflicting objectives. The developed system is applied in different five geographic regions in Taiwan and investigated for two types of wind turbines. Case studies on household and micro-community levels are performed based on real load demand data from a three-story house and synthetic data from an island, respectively. Moreover, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to investigate how sensitive interest rate are to the proposed model. Results based on a single objective reveal significant differences between environmental and economic optimization, whereas multi-objective optimization has proven to be an effective method for exploring the trade-offs between these two conflicting objectives. The findings from this study contribute to accelerating the transition to cleaner and more resilient energy systems. The conclusion highlights additional areas for future research.

[1] T. Salameh, E. T. Sayed, M. A. Abdelkareem, A. G. Olabi, and H. Rezk, "Optimal selection and management of hybrid renewable energy System: Neom city as a case study," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 244, Sep 15 2021.
[2] O. Krishan and S. Suhag, "Techno-economic analysis of a hybrid renewable energy system for an energy poor rural community," (in English), Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 23, pp. 305-319, Jun 2019.
[3] M. M. Rahman, M. M. U. H. Khan, M. A. Ullah, X. L. Zhang, and A. Kumar, "A hybrid renewable energy system for a North American off-grid community," (in English), Energy, vol. 97, pp. 151-160, Feb 15 2016.
[4] W. W. Ma, X. P. Xue, and G. Liu, "Techno-economic evaluation for hybrid renewable energy system: Application and merits," (in English), Energy, vol. 159, pp. 385-409, Sep 15 2018.
[5] H. C. Lee and C. T. Chang, "Comparative analysis of MCDM methods for ranking renewable energy sources in Taiwan," (in English), Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 92, pp. 883-896, Sep 2018.
[6] P. H. Chen, C. H. Lee, J. Y. Wu, and W. S. Chen, "Perspectives on Taiwan's Pathway to Net-Zero Emissions," (in English), Sustainability, vol. 15, no. 6, Mar 2023.
[7] K. H. Yang and R. L. Hwang, "Energy-Conservation of Buildings in Taiwan," (in English), Pattern Recognition, vol. 28, no. 10, pp. 1483-1491, Oct 1995.
[8] B. Jiang, H. T. Lei, W. H. Li, and R. Wang, "A novel multi-objective evolutionary algorithm for hybrid renewable energy system design," (in English), Swarm and Evolutionary Computation, vol. 75, Dec 2022.
[9] R. Sharma, H. Kodamana, and M. Ramteke, "Multi-objective dynamic optimization of hybrid renewable energy systems," (in English), Chemical Engineering and Processing-Process Intensification, vol. 180, Oct 2022.
[10] N. Pamuk, "Techno-economic feasibility analysis of grid configuration sizing for hybrid renewable energy system in Turkey using different optimization techniques," Ain Shams Engineering Journal, p. 102474, 2023/09/14/ 2023.
[11] M. Sharafi, T. Y. ElMekkawy, and E. L. Bibeau, "Optimal design of hybrid renewable energy systems in buildings with low to high renewable energy ratio," (in English), Renewable Energy, vol. 83, pp. 1026-1042, Nov 2015.
[12] R. Wang, J. Xiong, M. F. He, L. Gao, and L. Wang, "Multi-objective optimal design of hybrid renewable energy system under multiple scenarios," (in English), Renewable Energy, vol. 151, pp. 226-237, May 2020.
[13] K. Y. Jia, C. Liu, S. H. Li, and D. X. Jiang, "Modeling and optimization of a hybrid renewable energy system integrated with gas turbine and energy storage," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 279, Mar 1 2023.
[14] S. Basnet, K. Deschinkel, L. Le Moyne, and M. C. Péera, "A review on recent standalone and grid integrated hybrid renewable energy systems: System optimization and energy management strategies," (in English), Renewable Energy Focus, vol. 46, pp. 103-125, Sep 2023.
[15] Y. He, S. Guo, P. X. Dong, Y. Zhang, J. Huang, and J. X. Zhou, "A state-of-the-art review and bibliometric analysis on the sizing optimization of off-grid hybrid renewable energy systems," (in English), Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 183, Sep 2023.
[16] A. Mahesh and K. S. Sandhu, "Hybrid wind/photovoltaic energy system developments: Critical review and findings," (in English), Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 52, pp. 1135-1147, Dec 2015.
[17] P. Malik, M. Awasthi, and S. Sinha, "A techno-economic investigation of grid integrated hybrid renewable energy systems," (in English), Sustainable Energy Technologies and Assessments, vol. 51, Jun 2022.
[18] X. G. Xu, Z. Zhang, J. W. Yuan, and J. Q. Shao, "Design and multi-objective comprehensive evaluation analysis of PV-WT-BG-Battery hybrid renewable energy systems in urban communities," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management-X, vol. 18, Apr 2023.
[19] R. Kumar, R. A. Gupta, and A. K. Bansal, "Economic analysis and power management of a stand-alone wind/photovoltaic hybrid energy system using biogeography based optimization algorithm," (in English), Swarm and Evolutionary Computation, vol. 8, pp. 33-43, Feb 2013.
[20] B. Akarsu and M. S. Genc, "Optimization of electricity and hydrogen production with hybrid renewable energy systems," (in English), Fuel, vol. 324, Sep 15 2022.
[21] Y. Himri, A. B. Stambouli, B. Draoui, and S. Himri, "Techno-economical study of hybrid power system for a remote village in Algeria," (in English), Energy, vol. 33, no. 7, pp. 1128-1136, Jul 2008.
[22] M. S. Ismail, M. Moghavvemi, and T. M. I. Mahlia, "Genetic algorithm based optimization on modeling and design of hybrid renewable energy systems," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 85, pp. 120-130, Sep 2014.
[23] N. Alshammari and J. Asumadu, "Optimum unit sizing of hybrid renewable energy system utilizing harmony search, Jaya and particle swarm optimization algorithms," (in English), Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 60, Sep 2020.
[24] S. Kumar and S. K. Rao, "Optimum capacity of hybrid renewable energy system suitable for fulfilling yearly load demand for a community building located at Vaddeswaram, Andhra Pradesh," (in English), Energy and Buildings, vol. 277, Dec 15 2022.
[25] W. M. Amutha and V. Rajini, "Cost benefit and technical analysis of rural electrification alternatives in southern India using HOMER," (in English), Renewable & Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 62, pp. 236-246, Sep 2016.
[26] V. Suresh, M. Muralidhar, and R. Kiranmayi, "Modelling and optimization of an off-grid hybrid renewable energy system for electrification in a rural areas," (in English), Energy Reports, vol. 6, pp. 594-604, Nov 2020.
[27] R. J. Rathish, K. Mahadevan, S. K. Selvaraj, and J. Booma, "Multi-objective evolutionary optimization with genetic algorithm for the design of off-grid PV-wind-battery-diesel system," (in English), Soft Computing, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 3175-3194, Feb 2021.
[28] M. J. Mayer, A. Szilágyi, and G. Gróf, "Environmental and economic multi-objective optimization of a household level hybrid renewable energy system by genetic algorithm," (in English), Applied Energy, vol. 269, Jul 1 2020.
[29] A. L. G. Pires, P. Rotella Junior, L. C. S. Rocha, R. S. Peruchi, K. Janda, and R. d. C. Miranda, "Environmental and financial multi-objective optimization: Hybrid wind-photovoltaic generation with battery energy storage systems," Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 66, p. 107425, 2023/08/30/ 2023.
[30] M. Sharafi and T. Y. ELMekkawy, "Multi-objective optimal design of hybrid renewable energy systems using PSO-simulation based approach," (in English), Renewable Energy, vol. 68, pp. 67-79, Aug 2014.
[31] Z. Medghalchi and O. Taylan, "A novel hybrid optimization framework for sizing renewable energy systems integrated with energy storage systems with solar photovoltaics, wind, battery and electrolyzer-fuel cell," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 294, Oct 15 2023.
[32] H. Yazdani, M. Baneshi, and M. Yaghoubi, "Techno-economic and environmental design of hybrid energy systems using multi-objective optimization and multi-criteria decision making methods," (in English), Energy Conversion and Management, vol. 282, Apr 15 2023.
[33] A. Heydari et al., "A combined multi-objective intelligent optimization approach considering techno-economic and reliability factors for hybrid-renewable microgrid systems," (in English), Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 383, Jan 10 2023.
[34] D. L. Elliott, C. G. Holladay, W. R. Barchet, H. P. Foote, and W. F. Sandusky, "Wind Energy Resource Atlas of the United States," 1987.
[35] C. G. Justus, "Wind energy statistics for large arrays of wind turbines (New England and Central U.S. Regions)," Solar Energy, vol. 20, no. 5, pp. 379-386, 1978/01/01/ 1978.
[36] O. Mohammed, M. Kharrich, and M. Kharrich, "Design of Hybrid Microgrid PV/Wind/Diesel/Battery System: Case Study for Rabat and Baghdad," pp. 1-9, 01/14 2020.
[37] M. Kharrich, O. H. Mohammed, N. Alshammari, and M. Akherraz, "Multi-objective optimization and the effect of the economic factors on the design of the microgrid hybrid system," (in English), Sustainable Cities and Society, vol. 65, Feb 2021.
[38] M. A. M. Ramli, H. R. E. H. Bouchekara, and A. S. Alghamdi, "Optimal sizing of PV/wind/diesel hybrid microgrid system using multi-objective self-adaptive differential evolution algorithm," (in English), Renewable Energy, vol. 121, pp. 400-411, Jun 2018.
[39] A. Razzaqul, "Microgrid System Reliability," in Reliability and Maintenance, K. Leo, Ed. Rijeka: IntechOpen, 2019, p. Ch. 9.
[40] S. Mohseni, R. Khalid, and A. C. Brent, "Stochastic, resilience-oriented optimal sizing of off-grid microgrids considering EV-charging demand response: An efficiency comparison of state-of-the-art metaheuristics," (in English), Applied Energy, vol. 341, Jul 1 2023.
[41] C. Coello, D. Veldhuizen, and G. Lamont, Evolutionary Algorithms for Solving Multi-Objective Problems Second Edition. 2007.
[42] R. T. Marler and J. S. Arora, "Survey of multi-objective optimization methods for engineering," Structural and Multidisciplinary Optimization, vol. 26, no. 6, pp. 369-395, 2004/04/01 2004.
[43] J. Koski, "Multicriterion Optimization in Structural Design," 1981.
[44] S. S. Rao and T. I. Freiheit, "A Modified Game-Theory Approach to Multiobjective Optimization," (in English), Journal of Mechanical Design, vol. 113, no. 3, pp. 286-291, Sep 1991.
[45] K. Sindhya, K. Miettinen, and K. Deb, "A Hybrid Framework for Evolutionary Multi-objective Optimization," (in English), Ieee Transactions on Evolutionary Computation, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 495-511, Aug 2013.
[46] G. Alkawsi, Y. Baashar, A. A. Alkahtani, C. W. Lim, S. K. Tiong, and M. Khudari, "Viability Assessment of Small-Scale On-Grid Wind Energy Generator for Households in Malaysia," (in English), Energies, vol. 14, no. 12, Jun 2021.
[47] R. D. Azevêdo, P. Rotela, G. Chicco, G. Aquila, L. C. S. Rocha, and R. S. Peruchi, "Identification and analysis of impact factors on the economic feasibility of wind energy investments," (in English), International Journal of Energy Research, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 3671-3697, Mar 10 2021.
[48] A. Bonou, A. Laurent, and S. I. Olsen, "Life cycle assessment of onshore and offshore wind energy-from theory to application," (in English), Applied Energy, vol. 180, pp. 327-337, Oct 15 2016.
[49] X. Q. Zhong, W. F. Zhong, Y. Liu, C. Yang, and S. L. Xie, "Optimal energy management for multi-energy multi-microgrid networks considering carbon emission limitations," (in English), Energy, vol. 246, May 1 2022.
[50] A. Q. Jakhrani, A. R. H. Rigit, A. K. Othman, S. R. Samo, and S. A. Kamboh, "Estimation of carbon footprints from diesel generator emissions," in 2012 International Conference on Green and Ubiquitous Technology, 2012, pp. 78-81.
[51] Y. W. Su, "Residential electricity demand in Taiwan: Consumption behavior and rebound effect," (in English), Energy Policy, vol. 124, pp. 36-45, Jan 2019.