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研究生： Mayur Jiyalal Prajapati
Mayur Jiyalal Prajapati
論文名稱： 填充次級材料於閉孔超材料之多材料積層製造技術
MULTI-MATERIAL ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF CLOSED CELL METAMATERIALS INTEGRATED WITH SECONDARY MATERIALS
指導教授： 鄭正元
Jeng-Ywan Jeng
Ajeet Kumar
Ajeet Kumar
口試委員: 鄭逸琳
Yih-Lin Cheng
蔡榮庭
Jung-Ting Tsai
江卓培
Cho-Pei Jiang
Ajeet Kumar
羅裕龍
Yu-Lung Lo
學位類別： 博士
Doctor
系所名稱： 工程學院 - 機械工程系
Department of Mechanical Engineering
論文出版年： 2023
畢業學年度： 111
語文別： 英文
論文頁數： 238
中文關鍵詞： Multi-material additive manufacturing 、Closed-cell lattice structure 、Hybrid FFF process 、Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM) 、Multifunctional properties
外文關鍵詞： Multi-material additive manufacturing, Closed-cell lattice structure, Hybrid FFF process, Direct Digital Manufacturing (DDM), Multifunctional properties
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    • 設計優化很容易能在自然結構中發現，而這些結構為了在惡劣的環境下生存已經持續進化了數十億年，特別的是，大自然在此惡劣環境下演變出複雜結構時，能夠有效利用材料並最大限度的減少能源消耗。自然界中的材料（例如骨骼、豪豬刺、龜殼等）為了實現不同的功能和機械性能，它們具有空間排列的複合材料。從這些材料中所獲得的靈感，可以使設計工程結構時呈現更高效的材料分布，以實現多功能特性的輕量化設計。積層製造（AM）由於其材料層層堆疊的特點，極大地促進了複雜幾何形狀的製造，使設計師能夠從自然結構中汲取靈感並模仿，輕鬆地製造出輕量化的多功能結構。
    　　此外，多材料的積層製造技術可更有效地控制其功能和機械性能。在眾多的積層製造技術中，材料擠製成型技術（Material Extrusion ,MEX）是最廣為使用的技術，它能夠更簡單且低成本的使用多噴嘴設置，進而實現多材料和功能分級；然而，它也面臨著許多挑戰，例如製造複雜多孔結構時需要有支撐結構，這會很大程度增加製造和後處理時間，同時，複合結構的製造不可避免地會出現界面附著不佳，導致界面分層的現象。目前，多材料積層製造（Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing, MMAM）面臨兩個主要挑戰：界面黏結和多材料3D列印系統的開發。
    　　本研究開發了一個新穎的多材料積層製造（Multi-Material Additive Manufacturing, MMAM）概念，其概念包含了填充次功能材料的閉孔晶格結構，此無支撐的閉孔結構可以填充次級材料，從而製造出多材料的多功能零件。為了使用積層製造技術製作出閉孔超材料，特別開發了一種"Hybrid FFF"製程，此製程同時以3D列印方式製造閉孔晶格結構並將其注入次級功能材料。Hybrid FFF技術主要在實現直接數位製造的概念，去除後處理步驟從而減少製造時間、列印成本和材料使用量。無需支撐的閉孔幾何形狀可以將次級功能材料封裝在閉孔中，而透過將次級材料封在閉孔超材料的孔隙中可以解決界面結合問題。
    　　將泡沫填充的閉孔超材料以TPU和PETG作為基材，並利用Hybrid FFF製程設計和製作出。對於像TPU這類的軟性材料，添加泡沫可以提高剛性和能量耗散等機械性質，並同時具有阻尼等功能。對於如PETG這類的剛性材料，添加泡沫可以減少因分層製造過程所造成的材料異向性的影響。在衝擊分析中顯示，添加泡沫可以改善各個方向上的碰撞力效率。此外，透過不同方式上對閉孔結構進行功能分級，實現了可調節和更好的機械性能。因為泡沫的膨脹程度，會限制該結構的機械性能調整範圍，因此使用了液體（矽油），並注入全部和局部的閉孔結構中，以部分填充和完全填充的方式，使次級材料能夠調整其機械性能。此具有增強和可調節之多功能性能的閉孔超材料，可應用於例如保護和運動用品、汽車和航空航天零部件等，能夠特別訂製其吸能、阻尼和碰撞效率之產品。

    Design optimization is most easily noticed in natural structures, which have evolved over billions of years to facilitate adaption under harsh environmental conditions. Mother nature uses materials efficiently and minimizes energy consumption in developing complex structures for adverse environmental conditions. Natural materials such as bones, porcupine (Erethizontidae) quills, tortoise (Testudinidae) shells, etc., contain a spatial arrangement of multi-materials to achieve diverse mechanical and functional properties. Inspiration from these natural materials can help design engineering structures with efficient material distribution to achieve multifunctional properties with lightweight design. The advent of additive manufacturing (AM) has greatly advanced the manufacturing of complex geometries due to its layer-wise material deposition process.
    Additionally, multi-material AM facilitates more significant control over the mechanical and functional properties. Amongst several AM technologies, the material extrusion (MEX) process is the most sought-after process. It can achieve multi-material and functional grading due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and facilitation of various materials using multi-nozzle arrangements. However, it also poses many challenges, such as the requirement of support structures for fabricating complex cellular structures that significantly increase manufacturing and post-processing time. Also, the fabrication of composite structures inevitably comes with improper interface adhesion, leading to interface delamination. Currently, multi-material additive manufacturing (MMAM) has two major challenges a) interface bonding and b) multi-material 3D printing system development.
    This research develops a novel concept of multi-material additive manufacturing (MMAM) that involves closed-cell lattices filled with secondary functional material to counter challenges in MMAM. Closed-cell with support-free printing can be filled with secondary material to create multi-material multi-functional components. To additively manufacture closed-cell metamaterials, a ‘Hybrid FFF’ process is developed that 3D prints the closed-cell lattice structures and simultaneously impregnates them with secondary functional materials. The hybrid FFF process is aimed at the concept of direct digital manufacturing where post-process steps are removed, thereby reducing AM time, printing cost, and material usage. A supportless closed-cell geometry encapsulates the secondary functional material inside the closed cells. A filled closed-cell metamaterial can solve the interface problem by trapping the secondary material in the cellular cavity.
    Using the Hybrid FFF process, foam-filled closed-cell metamaterials were designed and additively manufactured using thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and (polyethylene terephthalate glycol) PETG as the base materials. In the case of soft materials such as TPU, adding foam improved mechanical properties such as stiffness and energy dissipation along with functional properties such as damping capacity. For rigid materials such as PETG, is was found that adding foam reduced the effect of directional mechanical anisotropy that results from the layer-wise deposition process. The crashworthiness analysis revealed that adding foam improves the crash force efficiency in all directions. Further, enhanced and tunable mechanical properties were achieved by functionally grading the closed cells in different ways. The expansive nature of foam limits the tunability of mechanical properties to structural modifications. Thus, liquid (Silicone oil) was impregnated into global and local closed-cell lattice structures in partial and fully filled configurations to tune the mechanical properties using secondary materials. Closed cell metamaterials with enhanced and tunable multi-functional properties can be utilized for highly customizable energy absorbing, damping, and crash force efficient applications such as protective and sporting goods, automobile and aerospace components, etc.

    Dedication iv 摘要 v ABSTRACT vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix TABLE OF CONTENTS xi LIST OF FIGURES xv LIST OF TABLES xx CHAPTER 1 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Overview 1 1.2 Motivation 4 1.3 Research Objectives 4 1.4 Thesis Outline 5 CHAPTER 2 7 LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Cellular materials 7 2.1.1 Classification of cellular materials 7 2.1.2 Properties and advantages of cellular structures 14 2.1.3 Closed cell lattice structures 18 2.2 Additive Manufacturing 18 2.2.1 VAT Photopolymerization 22 2.2.2 Powder Bed Fusion 25 2.2.3 Material Extrusion Process 27 2.2.4 Material Jetting 30 2.2.5 Binder Jetting 34 2.2.6 Sheet Lamination 37 2.2.7 Directed Energy Deposition 39 2.3 Multi-material additive manufacturing 42 2.3.1 Multi-material additive manufacturing of lattice structures 43 2.3.1.1 Discontinuous filler-reinforced multi-material lattices 44 2.3.1.2 Continuous fibre-reinforced multi-material lattices 47 2.3.1.3 Shell-core composite lattices 49 2.3.2 Multi-material additive manufacturing using MEX process 49 CHAPTER 3 55 DESIGN FOR ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF MULTI-MATERIAL CLOSED CELL METAMATERIALS AND HYBRID FFF PROCESS 55 3.1 Design for Materials Extrusion Process 55 3.3.1 Printing parameters 55 3.3.2 Geometrical features 57 3.2 Design for AM of closed-cell metamaterials filled with secondary materials 59 3.2.1 Design of supportless closed cell metamaterials 60 3.2.2 Design parameters for TPU based foam-filled closed cell metamaterials 61 3.2.3 Design parameters for PETG based foam-filled closed cell metamaterials 62 3.2.4 Design parameters for TPU based functionally gradient closed cell metamaterials 63 3.2.5 Design parameters for PETG based foam-filled tessellations 65 3.3 Design and construction of Hybrid Material Extrusion process 68 3.3.1 Hybrid MEX system version 1 68 3.3.2 Hybrid MEX system version 2 69 CHAPTER 4 72 MATERIALS AND METHODS 72 4.1 Materials 72 4.1.1 Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) 73 4.1.2 Polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) 74 4.1.3 Polyurethane (PU) foam 76 4.1.4 Silicone oil 78 4.2 Finite Element Analysis 78 4.2.1 Finite element analysis of foam-filled closed cell metamaterials 79 4.2.2 Finite element analysis of liquid filled closed-cell metamaterials 80 4.3 Additive Manufacturing of closed cell metamaterials filled with secondary materials 83 4.3.1 Additive manufacturing of foam-filled closed-cell metamaterials with TPU 83 4.3.2 Additive manufacturing of foam-filled closed cell metamaterials with PETG 85 4.3.3 Additive manufacturing of foam-filled functionally graded metamaterials with TPU 87 4.3.5 Additive manufacturing of liquid filled closed-cell metamaterials using TPU 87 4.3.6 Additive manufacturing of foam-filed tessellations 90 4.4 Experimental methods and results calculations 90 4.4.1 SEM analysis 91 4.4.2 Uniaxial compression testing for TPU based foam-filled closed-cell metamaterials 91 4.4.3 Uniaxial compression testing for rigid structures 93 CHAPTER 5 94 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MULTI-MATERIAL CLOSED CELL LATTICE STRUCTURES 94 5.1 Effect of foam-filling on closed-cell metamaterial 3D printed with TPU 94 5.1.1 Compression testing of lattice structures 94 5.1.2 Mechanical Properties of lattice structures 100 5.1.3 SEM Analysis 107 5.1.4 Discussions 109 5.2 Effect of foam-filling on closed-cell metamaterial 3D printed with PETG 112 5.2.1 SEM Analysis 112 5.2.2 Mechanical anisotropy and crashworthiness analysis 119 5.2.3 Finite Element Analysis 125 5.3 Effect of foam-filling on functionally gradient closed cell metamaterials 131 5.3.1 Compression testing of foam-filled functionally gradient metamaterials 131 5.3.2 SEM Analysis 136 5.4 Product development using foam-filled metamaterials 140 5.4.1 Variable strain rate compression testing of foam-filled metamaterials 140 5.4.2 Product development – Universal Puck for High-speed supply line 146 5.5 Effect of liquid filling on closed cell metamaterials 154 5.5.1 Structural behavior of unfilled, partially-filled and fully-filled closed cell metamaterials 154 5.5.2 Finite element analysis 159 5.5.3 Mechanical properties 167 5.5.4 Strategies to tune mechanical and functional properties 170 5.6 Effect of foam-filling on closed-cell tessellated metamaterials 172 5.6.1 Compression testing and mechanical properties of closed-cell non-edge-to-edge tessellated metamaterials 172 5.6.2 Compression testing and mechanical properties of closed-cell edge-to-edge tessellated metamaterials 175 CHAPTER 6 178 DESIGN AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING OF LIQUID FILLED CLOSED CELL DAMPERS 178 6.1 Introduction 178 6.2 Design of liquid filled closed cell dampers 179 6.2 Mechanical properties of liquid filled closed cell dampers 180 6.3 Challenges 182 CHAPTER 7 184 CONCLUSION, CHALLENGES AND FUTURE SCOPE 184 7.1 Conclusion 184 7.2 Challenges and future scope 189 REFERENCES 191 LIST OF PUBLICATIONS 215

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